1. Janet Price, Ph. D., The Academic ICT Gap AcademicICTGap@gmail.com
1
Abstract
“Technology is no longer just a tool, it is an environment”. (Cofino, 2009)
This study investigates the Academic ICT Gap that exists between the information and
communications technology (ICT) skills required by Western universities and the ICT skills of
commencing foreign students educated in developing countries. Commencing students and
university instructors have expectations that are at odds. ICT are ubiquitous in Western higher
education and all incoming students are expected to have mastered the basic ICT that support both
coursework and the learning and content management systems students use daily for academic and
administrative purposes. Yet there is no uniform ICT instruction in the foreign primary through
secondary (P-12) schools in which many of these students are educated. Higher education is a
competitive and profitable global service-sector driven by supply and demand and the foreign
student market brings unique challenges. Commencing foreign students expect their new
institutions to teach the ICT they need: similar to the practice of providing remedial English-language
services. By accepting students with ICT skill discrepancies, institutions accept the onus of ICT
remediation.
This study takes the initial step in defining the Academic ICT Gap. The Survey of Higher Education
asked 353 Australian university instructors to rank the importance of 28 ICT items to their
coursework. The Survey of Primary through Secondary asked 135 pre-tertiary International teachers
to review these same 28 ICT items and indicate their students’ graduate mastery levels. A
comparison of survey data identified discrepancies in a range of important skills required for
academic work.
Among the myriad uses of this unique research is the creation of the Academic ICT Baseline, a
transparent tool, created by Western universities, to guide ICT curriculum in International P-12
education.
Keywords: Academic ICT Gap, Academic ICT Baseline, ICT, L/CMS, Research Production Skills, RPS
2. Janet Price, Ph. D., The Academic ICT Gap AcademicICTGap@gmail.com
+61 (0) 497 259 483 Skype: AcademicConsultant
Table of Contents
1 THE EFFECTS OF THE DIGITAL DIVIDE ON GLOBAL LEARNING 1
1.1 THE PROBLEM: THE HAVES AND HAVE NOTS REMAIN ACADEMICALLY DIVIDED 1
1.2 INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATIONS TECHNOLOGY - COMMON KNOWLEDGE 4
1.2.1 Information and communications technology (ICT) as defined for this research 5
1.2.2 Research production skills as defined for this research 6
1.2.3 Learning and content management systems as defined for this research 7
1.2.4 Computer literacies and Bloom’s Taxonomy of Cognitive Learning Levels 7
1.2.5 The Genesis of the Academic ICT Gap research 9
1.3 FOREIGN STUDENTS - COMMON PURPOSE BRINGS UNCOMMON CHALLENGES 11
1.3.1 Assimilation and governmental challenges 13
1.3.2 Educational challenges 14
1.4 INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS AND TEACHERS - COMMON DENOMINATOR 16
1.4.1 The International teacher 16
1.4.2 The International school 17
1.5 WESTERN UNIVERSITIES - COMMON INTERESTS 17
1.5.1 Academic consumerism and the promise of a future 18
1.5.2 Academia and commercial interests find common cause 21
1.6 ASSESSMENT AND REMEDIATION FOR ALL ACADEMIC STAKEHOLDERS 22
1.7 CHAPTER SUMMARY 26
2 HISTORICAL CONTEXT 28
2.1 THE WORLD AND COMPUTERS 28
2.1.1 Pre-1970 29
2.1.2 1970-1979 32
2.1.3 1980-1989 36
2.1.4 1990-1999 38
2.1.5 Post-2000 40
2.2 CHAPTER SUMMARY 43
3 THE EVOLUTION OF THE ACADEMIC ICT GAP45
3.1 RESEARCH QUESTIONS 46
3.2 WESTERN ACADEMICS AND COMPUTERS 46
3. Janet Price, Ph. D., The Academic ICT Gap AcademicICTGap@gmail.com
+61 (0) 497 259 483 Skype: AcademicConsultant
3.2.1 Historic context of ICT adoption in Western higher education 47
3.2.2 Historic view of ICT integration in Western primary through secondary education
49
3.3 FOREIGN STUDENTS - MODELLING THE CHINESE PROTOTYPE 51
3.3.1 Historic context of English-language learning in China 52
3.3.2 Modern Chinese education - classroom and curriculum 52
3.3.3 Modern Chinese education - decision-makers 57
3.4 INTERNATIONAL SCHOOLS AND TEACHERS 59
3.4.1 International schools - the business of education 59
3.4.1 International schools - teaching English without ICT 62
3.4.2 International teachers - representatives of all things Western 63
3.5 ASSESSING THE ACADEMIC ICT GAP 64
3.5.1 Development of ICT skill assessment for all stakeholders 64
3.5.2 Development of Instructional Systems Designed for ICT skills delivery 66
3.5.3 The Importance of processes in closing the Academic ICT Gap 67
3.6 CHAPTER SUMMARY 70
4 METHODS THAT MEASURE THE GAP73
4.1 SURVEY COMPONENTS 73
4.1.1 The commencing foreign student 73
4.1.2 The ICT required by Western university instructors 74
4.2 SURVEY DATA: COLLECTION METHODS 75
4.3 SURVEY DESIGN ELEMENTS 76
4.3.1 Developing academic content for both the surveys 76
4.3.2 The importance of combining qualitative and quantitative formats 77
4.4 SURVEY DATA: ANALYSIS METHODS APPLICABLE TO END RESULTS 78
4.5 SURVEY DATA: ANALYSES METHODS APPLICABLE TO LIKERT VARIATIONS79
4.5.1 Assessing foreign students’ ICT skills by proxy 82
4.5.2 Higher education: What are the variables at play in ICT use? 84
4.5.3 Text data analyses 85
4.6 DUAL DATA - COMPARATIVE ANALYSES 86
4.7 ASSESSMENT AND REMEDIATION DETERMINED BY USE AND OUTCOME 86
4. Janet Price, Ph. D., The Academic ICT Gap AcademicICTGap@gmail.com
+61 (0) 497 259 483 Skype: AcademicConsultant
4.8 CHAPTER SUMMARY 87
5 RESULTS 89
5.1 SURVEY PRIMARY THROUGH SECONDARY - ICT SKILLS ANALYSES 89
5.1.1 SurveyP-12 variability analyses based on response frequency 89
5.1.2 SurveyP-12 Exploratory Factor Analysis 91
5.1.3 SurveyP-12 Principal Components Analysis 92
5.1.4 SurveyP-12 analysis of unsolicited commentary 94
5.2 SURVEY HIGHER EDUCATION – ICT SKILLS ANALYSIS 98
5.2.1 SurveyHE variability analyses based on response frequency 98
5.2.2 SurveyHE Exploratory Factor Analysis 100
5.2.3 SurveyHE Principal Components Analysis 100
5.2.4 SurveyHE analysis of interviews and email commentary 103
5.3 EXPOSING THE ACADEMIC ICT GAP BY COMPARING SURVEYS’ ANALYSES 106
5.3.1 Independent t-Test comparing surveys’ means and frequencies statistics106
5.3.2 Mann-Whitney U non-parametric testing indicates an Academic ICT Gap 107
5.4 CHAPTER SUMMARY 108
6 POSITS, SUPPOSITIONS AND ANALYSES CONCLUSION 109
6.1 DEDUCTIVE POSITS 109
6.2 ANALYSES RESULTS 112
6.2.1 SurveyP-12 analyses results 112
6.2.2 SurveyHE results 113
6.2.3 Comparative analysis results 114
6.3 CHAPTER SUMMARY AND ANSWERS TO THESIS RESEARCH QUESTIONS 114
7 INSTRUCTION THAT SUPPORTS SEAMLESS INTEGRATION 116
7.1 INTEGRATION TIMELINES DRIVE THE ICT INTERVENTION PROCESS 116
7.1.1 Targeted Active Integration 116
7.1.2 Active Integration 117
7.1.3 Managed Seamless Integration 117
7.2 PROJECT IF: INSTRUCTIONAL SYSTEM DESIGN COUNTERS THE ACADEMIC ICT GAP 118
7.2.1 Pre-Assessment118
7.2.2 Participant division 119
5. Janet Price, Ph. D., The Academic ICT Gap AcademicICTGap@gmail.com
+61 (0) 497 259 483 Skype: AcademicConsultant
7.2.3 Instructional programs that achieve intended learning outcomes119
7.2.4 Seamless integration of ICT production skills 124
7.2.5 Formative assessment to monitor and maintain ICT skill levels 124
7.3 EMERGING ICT CHALLENGES STATIC LEARNING PRACTICES 125
7.4 CHAPTER SUMMARY AND THESIS CONCLUSION 125
8 WAYS FORWARD 127
8.1 IDENTIFYING LEARNING CHALLENGES BY DIFFERENTIATING SKILLS 127
8.2 IDENTIFYING CHALLENGES BY EXAMINING STAKEHOLDERS 129
8.2.1 Connecting P-12 schools with higher education 129
8.2.2 Connecting higher education with commerce 130
8.2.3 Connecting higher education with national interests 130
8.2.4 Solutions for all stakeholders 131
8.3 FUTURE RESEARCH 131
8.3.1 Academic questions – Present and future 131
8.3.2 The Academic ICT Gap – Professional and personal rationale of further pursuit 132
References 134
Appendices 149
