Lead Authors: Carlo Fadda James Legg Margaret McEwan Beatrice Aighewi Jorge Andrade Zewdie Bishaw Sammy Carsan Steven Michael Cole Alan Duncan Alessandra Galie Karen Garrett Jonathan Hellin James Lillesø Chris Stephen Jones Christopher Kettle Jan Kreuze Kumar, Lava Jens-Peter Barnekow Lillesø Alice Muchugi Bonaventure Aman Omondi Michael Peters Kelvin Mashisia Shikuku David Spielman Ronnie Vernooy

1. L E A D A U T H O R S :
Fadda, Carlo
Legg, James
McEwan, Margaret
Aighewi, Beatrice
Andrade, Jorge
Bishaw, Zewdie Carsan, Sammy
Cole, Steven Michael
Duncan, Alan
Galie, Alessandra
Garrett, Karen
Hellin, Jonathan JamesLillesø,
Jones, Chris Stephen
Kettle, Christopher
Kreuze, Jan
Kumar, Lava
Lillesø, Jens-Peter Barnekow
Muchugi, Alice
Omondi, Bonaventure Aman
Peters, Michael
Shikuku, Kelvin Mashisia
Spielman, David
Vernooy, Ronnie
Seed Systems:
Resilient, Equitable,
and Integrated
October 2021

2. I N T R O D U C T I O N
2

3. Introduction
• Current seed systems are not serving
smallholders well
• Seed systems need more flexibility to adapt
to climate, environmental, and social
changes
• Policy and regulatory environments do not
enable increased availability, affordability,
and access to quality seed
• Informal and formal seed sectors must
complement each other better
• There is often poor communication and
coordination between seed system
stakeholders
3
See Annexes for definitions

4. Current seed systems are not fulfilling their potential to improve the resilience of the
livelihoods of smallholder farmers. Biodiversity is decreasing, as is the ability to produce,
market and exchange animal breeds and plant seeds
• National seed systems in low and middle-income countries cannot provide
sufficient reproductive material (“seed”) for many crucial crops, trees, livestock, fish
• Constraints include inappropriate policies and regulations; institutional and
organizational weaknesses; and deficient capacity to produce, process, test, package,
and distribute seed. Where seed is available, the quality is often inadequate, and the
provenance is not known. Inadequate quantities of seeds of vegetatively produced
crops (VPCs), open-pollinated crops, trees, and neglected and underutilized species
(NUS) are produced, either by public or private schemes because of lack of supportive
policies. Extension services are typically under-resourced and seed value chains are
fragmented. Seed enterprises lack technical, business and managerial capacities.
There is little information about smallholders´ supply and demand for seed
4
Problem Identification

5. • Integrated seed systems can deliver sufficient, affordable, quality seed by
combining the best of formal and informal systems
• An inclusive, gender-responsive approach would combine the efficiency,
productivity, quality control and income-generation of formal systems, with the
genetic diversity, focus on quality traits, food security and diverse seed sources
of the informal systems
5
Proposition

6. • National seed stakeholders use diagnostic tools to understand biophysical, socio-economic and
institutional bottlenecks from multi-stakeholder perspectives, to improve seed systems
• Communities are empowered to manage biodiversity and seed security initiatives, linked to public
gene banks and breeding programs, including through the establishment of catalogues for traditional
varieties and neglected species
• Breeders access varieties with potential for local adaptation and work in a participatory way with
farmers and other seed system actors on market-preferred traits
• Demand-driven approaches are responsive to the needs and interests of all seed users
• Seed regulatory systems support the diversity of seed production and distribution while still allowing
the introduction of new varieties. Local seed producers are trained to meet seed quality standards,
including for NUS
• Integrated seed systems promote best agronomic practices, seed health and quality. They provide
equitable opportunities for seed producers to earn income. They recognize informal seed sector
actors and provide information on suitability of seed sources for all species
• Commodity and context-specific models ensure optimal integration of informal and formal seed
systems and enhance social, economic and human resilience to meet the SDG challenges
• Innovative private-public finance schemes support seed delivery for VPCs, NUS, trees, and fish
6
Theory of Change

7. • Provide holistic supply of seed. Ensure resilient, vibrant seed systems for trees,
forages, crops, NUS, fish and livestock, for different types of farmers
• Promote research to improve NUS crops
• Promote direct use of traditional varieties when they are in high demand by
farmers
• Promote policies to better integrate formal and informal seed systems
• Improve the production efficiency and quality of early generation or starter seed
for a broader range of species
• Enhance the genetic base of released varieties
• Provide finance for local seed businesses and capacity building for startups with
socially responsible business models
7
Summary of Recommendations

8. • Current seed systems are not serving smallholders well
• Loss of biodiversity
• Seed systems do not reflect variety in farming systems (scale, crops etc.)
• Smallholders lack quality seed of desired varieties. Demand is poorly understood, especially for women
• Seed systems need more flexibility to adapt to climate, environmental, and social changes
• Agriculture emits greenhouse gases, degrades soil and landscapes, wastes and pollutes water
• Gaps in knowledge on the use and value of landraces, traditional vegetables, and trees
• Producers and users of tree and forage seed lack information on suitable varieties and seed sources
• More diversity is needed for resilience in production systems
• Policy and regulatory environments do not enable availability and access to quality seed
• Legal restrictions on selling un-registered species and varieties limit incentives for farmers to invest
• Lack of standards for production, testing, and sale of many species’ seed
• Low public investment for seed of most species other than hybrid maize and vegetables
• Lack of inclusive and sustainable business models
• Informal and formal sectors must complement each other better
• Formal seed systems often meet less than 5% of national demand
• Formal seed sector can provide efficiency, productivity, quality and income gains, e.g. early generation seed (EGS) can complement improved
informal systems
• There is often poor communication and coordination between seed system stakeholders
• Weak national seed system governance. Poor integration of formal and informal sectors. Limited collaboration between national and
international research
• Roles not clarified, e.g. public, private sector and NGOs as intermediaries in seed supply
8
Introduction – Issues Addressed

9. C H A L L E N G E S

10. • Limited capacities to support smallholders’ access to quality seed of diverse
species
• Innovative funding schemes for low-profit seed are missing
• Policies promoting integrated seed systems will take time to develop
• Research needs greater understanding of NUS, landraces, trees, local
livestock breeds and fish, and promote greater investments in & improvements
of the same
• Seed delivery is not leveraging advantages of digital platforms
• Interventions need to reflect regional differences in level of biodiversity,
objectives of seed system, range of stakeholder involvement
10
Challenges

11. • Pests (especially viruses) are easily
carried in infected planting material
• Low genetic diversity in some VPCs
leads to vulnerability to new pests and
climate change
• Slow rate of multiplication limits the
supply of new varieties or disease-free
seed
• Seed is bulky, perishable and often
expensive, especially if seed can be
used as food (e.g., yams and potatoes)
• Giving away free seed stymies
development of sustainable seed
systems
11
Specific challenges: VPCs
• Fish rarely seen as commercial, limiting
investment in their seed systems
• Sourcing from neighbors, own ponds,
leads to inbreeding and poor
performance
• Fish farming dominated by men. Gender
gaps in accessing seed. Yet women play
important roles in fish production and
marketing
• Limited access to inputs like feed
• Balancing the trade-off between in-situ
conservation and using exotic species
Specific challenges: Fish

12. • Lack of data, including on which breeds are
best for each production system
• Few working models for sustained genetic
improvement
• Lack of incentives for women and men
farmers to participate in breeding programs
12
Specific challenges:
Livestock
• Emphasis has been on the most adaptable
species, not on specific niches
• Grasses are difficult to breed, so it is hard to
fix a desired trait. Most legumes are self-
pollinated, and the issue is identifying the
best insect pollinators
• Smallholders lack skills to plant forages.
Lack incentives to invest in forages. There is
a long delay between buying seed and
benefitting from it. Informal seed is of
variable quality. Forages are rarely certified,
and their markets are poorly developed
• Seed is rarely available, affordable or
accessible
Specific challenges:
Forages

13. Supply
• Adapted populations are not identified, except for
commodity crops and exotic fruits
• Seed source custodians not supported
projects/government collect whatever is available
• Private nurseries face unfair competition from
projects and government
• Collecting seed from natural forests is expensive,
due to lack of coordination
Demand
• Even for commodity crops and exotic fruits, many
farmers use inferior material
• National research is seldom mandated to develop
the tree seed sector
• Current systems favor small-seeded, exotic
species
13
Specific challenges:
Trees
• Little R&D
• Smallholders manage seed from start to end
• These crops are not part of seed quality capacity
development programs (QDS)
• Lack of research and investment despite their
potential to contribute to resilience and nutrition
security
NUS and traditional
vegetables

14. C G I A R E X P E R I E N C E
A N D E X P E R T I S E
E X P E R I E N C E
A N D E X P E R T I S E

15. • There is knowledge of many crops, trees, forages, livestock and fish, but it is
scattered and not always enough to create functioning seed systems
• There are good examples of functioning seed systems in all species, but these
need to be mainstreamed and enabled by policies
• Support to countries in seed policies and seed expertise exists, particularly
related to varietal release of landraces
15
Expertise

16. • Cassava: Sustainable seed systems established in Africa via networks of seed entrepreneurs. Research
on new rapid propagation techniques. Policy guidelines being developed with national agencies for seed
certification. In SE Asia, research conducted on the influence of seed flows on disease spread and novel
propagation systems. SeedTracker ICT tool for managing seed system quality assurance and marketing
• Sweetpotato: Support to national breeding programs to prioritize seed traits. Sustainable EGS production
business plans established (11 countries). Seed standards have been officially gazetted. Validated
technologies for rapid multiplication to lower seed cost. Better disease diagnostics. Linking value chain
actors through seed producer associations. Strengthening farmer seed management practices
• Yam: New rapid propagation techniques developed and established by national research and private seed
companies. Formal yam seed systems established, and the capacity of national regulatory agencies
developed. Stakeholders’ fora being created to facilitate demand-driven seed systems. New yam varieties
have been introduced, and farmers trained to improve and maintain seed quality in local varieties
• Bananas: Experience on banana seed systems in East Africa and Latin America. Technologies in place for
tissue culture as sources of healthy planting material, but smallholders still rely largely on informal seed
• Potatoes: New projects pay more attention to understanding farmer demand for new seed, while
designing more integrated interventions, not focusing just on seed, but also on nutrition, income, etc. Work
is still needed to train young scientists and practitioners
16
Expertise VPCs

17. • Livestock: genomic selection-based breeding programs for cross-bred dairy cattle, and community-based
breeding programs for small ruminants, linked to natural sire and artificial insemination in Tanzania and Ethiopia
• Genetic improvement programs for chickens: linked to distribution systems for new breeds in Tanzania, Ethiopia,
Nigeria
• Genetic improvement strategy for pigs linked to community-based artificial insemination systems in Uganda
• Forages: awareness creation and development of decision support tools, e.g.
https://www.ilri.org/feast; www.tropicalforages.info
• Established Ethiopian Forage Seed Consortium and Ethiopian Forage Seed Producers and Marketing
Association (EFSPMA)
• Trees: constraints are well documented, but implementation of practical solutions are limited. Limited data on
genetic resources for many species, though some options exist like the divresity for restoration
(https://www.diversityforrestoration.org/) to help with decision-making on the use of appropriate tree species in
restoration. ICRAF in Ethiopia implements solutions for tree seed systems
• NUS: Some research e.g., IPGRI/Bioversity, but knowledge is still limited. These crops are poorly documented in
many countries. The Indian Government does value them. Interesting studies of amaranth in Latin America. A
global manifesto has been recently launched to call for greater support for NUS (https://alliancebioversityciat.org/stories/global-
manifesto-conserve-forgotten-foods)
• Fish: WorldFish supports establishing decentralized and inclusive fish seed production and dissemination
systems via public-private partnerships (PPPs) with breeding nucleus, satellite hatcheries, and nursery operators
17
Experience & expertise livestock, forages, trees, NUS,
fish

18. • More knowledge needed on the potential for using the full range of diversity of
crops, forages, trees, livestock or fish to address food and nutrition security,
resilience, and pest/disease management
• Mechanisms on how to improve the efficiency and quality of seed
production, and how to deliver quality seed most effectively for all these plants
and animals to smallholder farmers
• Need for greater knowledge of farmer seed demand, particularly women
farmers
• Few studies of alternative public-private partnerships (PPPs) in low-medium
income countries to produce and deliver low-profit seed for these species
18
Knowledge gaps

19. VPCs
• What are the most efficient and cost-effective systems for the rapid propagation of VPC seed?
• What is the value proposition for commercial seed production for each VPC x territory combination?
• How to maximize benefits and minimize risks, e.g. strengthen farmer seed management?
• How can government seed policy be influenced to facilitate this?
• What agronomic changes are required to increase the productivity of seed production?
• How can VPC seed quality management systems be decentralized?
• What is the best way to scale sustainable seed system approaches?
• How to disseminate new varieties for different types of farmers in different environments?
• Effectiveness of ICT to link seed value chain actors, traceability, identify and manage pests?
Fish
• Further research to understand the performance of seed systems in Africa and Asia
• Pilots of inclusive business models place too little evidence on effectiveness.​ Models need testing in different
contexts
Trees
• Poor information on planting zones and seed source types per species
• Lack of knowledge of demand and supply for tree seeds and seedlings
• Lack of experience in integrating formal and informal actors in the sector
• Poor information on the multiple uses of trees and their contribution to the community well-being
19
Knowledge gaps

20. Livestock
• What are appropriate business models (independent of donor funding)?
• What are appropriate approaches so women and men can equally benefit from improved livestock genetics?
• How best to support partners to strengthen national artificial insemination systems?
• Need to balance production and resilience for livestock in harsh environments. Tools exist to measure
production, but new tools are needed to measure resilience. Need better understanding of the future
environmental conditions for livestock
Forages
• Knowledge on specific forages and use in niches
• Skills to produce high-quality forage seed in the informal sector, and to establish seed-based forage crops
NUS and vegetables
• Geographic distribution and status of the crop
• Management and use. Health and nutritional properties. Value chains
• How policies and laws impact them
• Challenges and threats (e.g. climate change). Seed quality is poorly monitored
20
Knowledge gaps

21. C G I A R S T R AT E G Y

22. • Research on crops, forages, trees, livestock and fish will address food and
nutrition security, livelihoods, and potential for local adaptation to maximize
outputs in different farming systems
• Validate new approaches for equitable seed production and delivery
• Develop ICT platforms (ensuring equitable access and use) to manage complex
seed systems that integrate the formal and informal sectors
• Develop new investment models to address crops with low profit seed
• Develop sound policies to integrate seed systems, including farmers’ rights,
conservation and use of genetic resources
22
CGIAR Strategy: Priorities for investment in resilient,
equitable, integrated seed systems

23. Diagnostic
• Characterize seed system bottlenecks and collaborative research to address constraints
• Feedback mechanisms so breeders can include priority traits
• Promote participatory breeding to ensure farmers’ preferences and needs are accounted for in breeding programs
Policy and governance
• Work with national seed systems to provide evidence for policy options: to strengthen seed system governance, ensure
farmers’ rights and equitable access to their own genetic resources
• Develop seed systems that recognize contexts, promote quality, productivity and traceability, uphold public and
community management of genetic diversity and offer diverse species and varieties
• Promote options for selling new varieties and incentives for seed producers to invest in marketing
• Strengthen collaboration among national and international research
• Promote public system that support quality seeds for crops and varieties with low economic value for private sector but
which are important for food and nutrition security and resilience
Technical
• Testing scalable models for seed systems
• Test equitable business models (e.g. PPPs) for seed production at different stages in seed value chain
• Increase the productivity and reduce production costs to make seed more affordable
• Expand networks of quality seed producers
• Improve technologies for farmer management of quality seed
• ICT platforms for seed traceability, coordination and communication in seed value chain
23
Priorities for investment

24. VPCs
• Establish low-cost pathogen testing and quality management throughout the seed system
• Develop appropriate technology for rapid multiplication of pathogen-tested seed
• Identify novel approaches to produce high-quality seed that is less bulky and has longer storage time
Fish
• Diversify farmed fish species
• Share knowledge about the sources and benefits of quality seed
• Fish seed quality accreditation
• PPPs for inclusive and sustainable production and dissemination of improved fish germplasm
Livestock
• Test promising breeding and delivery approaches in different systems
• Supporting partners to strengthen national artificial insemination systems
Forages
• Combine formal and informal systems. ​
• Foster community-based propagation, strengthen youth and women’s groups
• Establish links between private seed companies and informal systems
• Light touch quality certification and support for branding and marketing among small-scale producers
• Develop policies and regulations, at a regional level
24
Investment- specific

25. Trees
• Build consensus on roles of actors in tree planting and restoration – Integrated Seed System Development
(ISSD)
• Make practical recommendations on use of varieties available to all actors
• Awareness on the importance of genetic diversity and suitability of adaptive variation
• Data on adaptive variation on many tropical tree species is needed
• Develop tools and standards for quality sourcing - national websites
• Involve networks of seed source custodians and private nurseries as distributors and extensionists
• National and regional databases of genetic resources of native tree species
• Produce species-wise planting zones for well-known exotics and lesser known indigenous species
• Develop quality sourcing for all species and create demand for sources held by seed custodians
• Link NARS capacity and local interest in markets of seeds using digital and nursery systems.
• Seed sources (varieties) identified and documented within planting zones: e.g. natural forest, farms
NUS and vegetables
• Document use, conservation and knowledge of nutritious NUS grains, vegetables, roots, tubers, pulses, food
trees with potential for greater cultivation, marketing, and adaptation to climate change
• Ensure adequate seed quality. Greater interest and engagement of private sector
• The Global Manifesto indicates priority areas of investment for NUS
(https://alliancebioversityciat.org/stories/global-manifesto-conserve-forgotten-foods)
25
Investment- specific

26. • Key actors and relationships: national seed system stakeholders. Multi-sectoral
(agriculture, livestock, fish, natural resources, trade, health, education). Public, private,
civil society. Regional and global exchange of knowledge and innovations
• Action areas
1.Rewire partnerships and capacity development for seed system development
2.Enhance evidence-based dialogue with policy makers and regulatory bodies
• Recognize and promote biodiversity
• Identify and promote pluralistic seed systems
• Appropriate quality assurance approaches
3.Prioritize seed system research to identify and address biophysical, socio-economic and
institutional bottlenecks
4.Strengthen seed system-market-breeding feedback and linkages
5.Ensure sustainability through appropriate commercialization to enhance sustainability of seed
systems and increase equitable opportunities for revenue for seed producers
26
CGIAR Strategy: Resilient, equitable integrated seed
systems

27. 1.Rewire partnerships and capacity development for seed system development with national
seed systems to validate models to strengthen governance, knowledge and skills at all levels of seed
systems to improve their efficiency and improve the livelihoods of smallholders, in collaboration with
global and regional practitioners
• Capitalize on regional specificities for exchange of innovations and synergy
• Recognize the role of custodian farmers in maintain diversity of crops, trees, varieties
2.Enhance evidence-based dialogue with policy makers and regulatory bodies:
• Promote biodiversity. Protect the diversity of species, varieties and the resilience of seed
producers and users
• Promote pluralistic seed systems and the optimal integration of formal and informal
systems for each territory x species ( ‘sweet spot blend’)
• Appropriate quality assurance approaches addressing regulatory bottlenecks around
registration, property rights, import-and-export of seed
3.Prioritize seed systems research to address bottlenecks: propagation technology, pathogen
testing, seed production, ICTs to link seed value chain actors, disease recognition, management and
traceability; resilient seed systems in a changing environment, climate and markets. Understanding
farmers’ demands for new technologies to inform scalable innovation packages (e.g. access to other
interventions, inputs) and enhance adoption, seed performance and varietal turnover
27
Action areas

28. 4.Strengthen – seed system-market-breeding feedback and linkages
• Species-specific breeding characteristics and implications for seed system
• Evidence of economic, environmental, social value of biodiversity
• In-situ community-based germplasm management
• Participatory research and citizen science for appropriate feedback
• Support traditional crops and varieties through special catalogues with the same value of variety
registration, for possible commercialization of the same
5.Ensure sustainability. Appropriate commercialization to enhance sustainability and increase
equitable opportunities for seed producers. Validate multi-crop inclusive seed business models for
different types of farmers and contexts, e.g.
• Public-private partnerships with profit or alternative value goals
• Community-based, include women and youth
• Agri-food system x crop specific
• Modelling optimal crop-tree-forage-livestock-fish combinations for seed businesses
28
Action areas

29. • Ensure holistic supply of seed & sourcing options to farmers. Ensure functioning
resilient and vibrant seed systems for crops, trees, forages, fishes and
livestock, to serve different types of farmers
• Promote research to improve NUS, e.g. identify potential of landraces to
contribute to food and nutrition security
• Promote policies that enable better integration and complementarity of formal
and informal seed systems
• Develop and deploy improved methods to rapidly produce high quality
EGS/starter seed and establish mechanisms to make high quality seed more
widely available
• Enhance the genetic base of released varieties
• Provide access to finance for local seed businesses as well as capacity
development to develop new startups with business models oriented towards
circularity and social responsibility
29
Summary of Recommendations

30. A N N E X E S

31. Equitable: “Equivalence of life outcomes for women and men achieved through strategies that
address their different needs, interests, access to resources and power”
Farmers: Includes small-scale farmers, agricultural laborers, livestock keepers, fisher-people, and
people who derive livelihoods from forestry and agroforestry
Formal seed sector is regulated: "Production and supply of seed of officially released varieties and
certified seed through an organized chain including specialized plant breeders, regulated seed
producers, and specialized commercial outlets or government extension agencies.“
Informal, ‘traditional’ or ‘farmer’ seed system lacks public-sector regulation (Thiele, 1999). Farmers
frequently exchange seeds among themselves, often for sale (Almekinders et al., 1994; Almekinders
and Louwaars, 1999; De Schutter, 2009). Farmer seed systems also develop new varieties and
maintain crop genetic diversity, but they do so as an integrated part of crop production (Almekinders
and Louwaars, 2002; Brush, 2004)."
Integrated Seed Systems recognize the value of formal and informal seed systems and cherish the
diversity of systems and pathways by which seed is produced, marketed, exchanged, and used by
farmers with different needs. It is a pluralistic seed sector essential for resilience, innovation and
sustainable growth in the face of climate change through mitigation and adaption
Resilient seed systems refers to the ability of seed system actors to absorb disturbances, re-group or
re-organize, and adapt to stresses and changes caused by a perturbation
31
Annex 1: Glossary

32. Seed – propagation materials for crops, trees, forages, livestock, and fish
Seed quality
• "Based on the concepts of (1) genetic quality (including genetic purity, level of improvement, varieties, and biodiversity, e.g.,
local crop varieties and indigenous fish strains); (2) health: pests and diseases are below specified threshold levels; (3)
physiological quality: at the right physiological age—e.g., properly stored in the case of potato and yam or sourced from
vigorous and healthy-looking crops for most other VPC; survival rate in the case of fish seed; and (4) sound physical quality
(purity, size, shape and without mechanical damage). Quality is also shaped by acceptability of the seed to users (their
perception and intended use)"
Seed sovereignty reclaims seeds and biodiversity as commons and public good
Seed systems any system in which propagation materials for crops, trees, forages, livestock, and fish are produced, conserved,
exchanged, and used.
• Tree seed systems include: exotic “plantation” species (e.g. eucalypts, pines, teak); exotic fruit trees (e.g. mango, avocado,
zizyphus); indigenous species (e.g. West African fruits, Brazilian fruits); commodity crops (e.g. tea, coffee, cashew, cocoa,
rubber, oil palm); Many useful agroforestry species (100s of species)
• Livestock seed systems the distribution of genetically superior germplasm (female and male animals) which need to be
identified, created, and disseminated (including via artificial insemination).
Seed zone an area where plant materials can be transferred with little risk of being poorly adapted
Variety crop varieties, tree and forage species, livestock breeds, and fish strains, and the genotypic or phenotypic characteristics
that distinguish them.
32
Glossary

33. • Bentley, J.W., Andrade-Piedra, J., Demo, P., Dzomeku, B., Jacobsen, K., Kikulwe, E., Kromann, P., Kumar, P.L., McEwan, M.,
Mudege, N., Ogero, K., Okechukwu, R., Orrego, R., Ospina, B., Sperling, L., Walsh, S., Thiele, G., 2018. Understanding root,
tuber, and banana seed systems and coordination breakdown: a multi-stakeholder framework. Journal of Crop Improvement 32,
599–621. https://doi.org/10.1080/15427528.2018.1476998.
• Bentley, J., Van Mele, P., and Reece, D. J. (2011). “How Seed Works,” in African Seed Enterprises: Sowing the Seeds of Food
Security (Wallingford, UK: CAB International), 8–24.
• Lillesø, J.P.B., Harwood, C., Derero, A., Graudal, L., Roshetko, J.M., Kindt, R., Moestrup, S., Omondi, W.O., Holtne, N., Mbora,
A., van Breugel, P., Dawson, I.K., Jamnadass, R. and Egelyng, H. 2018. Why Institutional Environments for Agroforestry Seed
Systems Matter. Development Policy Review 36: O89–O112.
• Kindt R., van Breugel P., Lillesø J-P. B. and Graudal L. 2016. Future tree seed zonation in East Africa determined by potential
natural vegetation and bioclimatic distance.
• Shikuku, K.M., Tran, N., Joffre, O.M., Islam, A.H.M.S., Barman, K.B., Ali, S., Rossignoli, C.R., 2021. Lock-ins to the
dissemination of genetically improved fish seeds. Agricultural Systems, 188, 103042.
• Sperling, Louise. 2008. When Disaster Strikes: A Guide to Assessing Seed System Security. Cali, Colombia: CIAT.
• Subedi, A., Vernooy, R. 2019. Healthy food systems require resilient seed systems. In Bioversity International, Agrobiodiversity
Index Report 2019: Risk and Resilience. Bioversity International, Rome, Italy, pp. 127-134. Available:
https://hdl.handle.net/10568/100820.
33
Annex 2: References