Selaginella: features, morphology ,anatomy and reproduction.
Antibiotic Drug.ppt
1. Dr.Gurumeet C Wadhawa ,Assistant
Professor, Department of Chemistry.
Rayat Shikshan sansthas Veer Wajekar ASC
College,Phunde,Uran
2. Medications used to treat bacterial
infections
Ideally, before beginning antibiotic
therapy, the suspected areas of
infection should be cultured to
identify the causative organism and
potential antibiotic susceptibilities
3.
4. Empiric therapy: treatment of an infection
before specific culture information has
been reported or obtained
Prophylactic therapy: treatment with
antibiotics to prevent an infection, as in
intra-abdominal surgery or after trauma
5. Therapeutic response
Decrease in specific signs and symptoms of
infection are noted (fever, elevated WBC, redness,
inflammation, drainage, pain)
Subtherapeutic response
Signs and symptoms of infection do not improve
9. Four common mechanisms of action
Interference with cell wall synthesis
Interference with protein synthesis
Interference with DNA replication
Acting as a metabolite to disrupt critical
metabolic reactions inside the bacterial cell
10.
11. Bactericidal: kill bacteria
Bacteriostatic: inhibit growth of susceptible
bacteria, rather than killing them immediately;
will eventually lead to bacterial death
12. One of the first groups of antibiotics
Sulfadiazine (Coptin)
Sulfamethoxazole
Sulfisoxazole (Gantrisin)
Used to treat otitis media, UTIs, other conditions
Often combined with another antibiotic
Sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim (Bactrim)
13. Bacteriostatic action
Prevent synthesis of folic acid required
for synthesis of purines and nucleic acid
Do not affect human cells or certain
bacteria—they can use preformed folic acid
Only affect organisms that synthesize their
own folic acid
16. Body System Adverse Effects
Blood Hemolytic and aplastic anemia,
agranulocytosis, thrombocytopenia
Integumentary Photosensitivity, exfoliative dermatitis,
Stevens-Johnson syndrome, epidermal
necrolysis
GI Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea,
pancreatitis
Other Convulsions, crystalluria, toxic
nephrosis, headache,
peripheral neuritis, urticaria
17. Sulfonamides
Should be taken with at least 2000 mL
of fluid per day, unless contraindicated
Oral forms should be taken with food or
milk to reduce GI upset
21. First introduced in the 1940s
Bactericidal: inhibit cell wall synthesis
Kill a wide variety of bacteria
Also called “β-lactams”
Bacteria produce enzymes capable of
destroying penicillins
These enzymes are known as β-lactamases
As a result, the medication is not effect
22. Chemicals used to inhibit these enzymes:
Clavulanic acid Tazobactam Sulbactam
Bind with β-lactamase and prevent the enzyme
from breaking down the penicillin -- making the
drug more effective
Penicillin-β-lactamase inhibitor
combination drugs
ampicillin + sulbactam = Unasyn
amoxicillin + clavulanic acid = Augmentin
ticarcillin + clavulanic acid = Timentin
piperacillin + tazobactam = Zosyn
23. Penicillins enter the bacteria via the cell wall
Inside the cell they bind to penicillin-binding protein
Once bound, normal cell wall synthesis is
disrupted
Result: bacteria cells die from cell lysis
Penicillins do not kill other cells in the body
24. Prevention and treatment of infections
caused by susceptible bacteria, such as:
Gram-positive bacteria
Streptococcus, Enterococcus, Staphylococcus
25. Allergic reactions occur in 0.7% to 4% of cases
Urticaria, pruritus, angioedema
Those allergic to penicillins have a fourfold to sixfold increased
risk of allergy to other β-lactam antibiotics
Cross-reactivity between penicillins and cephalosporins is
between 1% and 18%
Common adverse effects
Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain
Other adverse effects are less common
27. Any patient taking a penicillin should be carefully
monitored for an allergic reaction for at least
30 minutes after its administration
The effectiveness of oral penicillins is
decreased when taken with caffeine, citrus
fruit, cola beverages, fruit juices, or tomato
juice
Administer with at least 6 ounces of water
28. Four Generations:
Semisynthetic derivatives from a fungus
Structurally and pharmacologically related
to penicillins
Bactericidal action
Broad spectrum
Divided into groups according to antimicrobial activity
29. Used for surgical prophylaxis, URIs,
otitis media
cefazolin (Ancef and Kefzol): IV or IM
cephalexin (Keflex): PO
30. Good gram-positive coverage
Better gram-negative coverage than first
generation
Cefmetazole IV Cefprozil (Cefzil) PO
Cefoxitin (Mefoxin) IV Cefaclor (Ceclor) PO
cefoxitin (Mefoxin): IV and IM
Used prophylactically for abdominal or colorectal surgeries
Also kills anaerobes
cefuroxime (Kefurox and Ceftin): PO
Surgical prophylaxis
Does not kill anaerobes
31. ceftriaxone (Rocephin)
IV and IM, long half-life, once-a-day dosing
Elimination is primarily hepatic
Easily passes meninges and diffused into CSF to treat CNS
infections
ceftazidime (Fortaz, Tazidime)
IV and IM forms
Excellent gram-negative coverage
Used for difficult-to-treat organisms such as Pseudomonas
Eliminated renally instead of biliary route
Excellent spectrum of coverage
32. Newest cephalosporin drugs
Broader spectrum of antibacterial activity than
third generation, especially against gram-
positive bacteria
Tx: UTI, Skin infections, pneumonia
cefepime (Maxipime) GM +/-
cefdinir
cefditoren pivoxil (Spectracef)
33. Similar to penicillins
Mild diarrhea, abdominal cramps, rash, pruritis,
redness, edema
Potential cross-sensitivity with penicillins
if allergies exist
34. Orally administered forms should be given
with food to decrease GI upset, even
though this will delay absorption
Some of these drugs may cause a
disulfiram (Antabuse)-like reaction when
taken with alcohol
35. Very broad-spectrum antibacterial action
Reserved for complicated body cavity and
connective tissue infections
May cause drug-induced seizure activity
All given parenterally
imipenem-cilastatin (Primaxin)
Used for treatment of bone, joint, skin, and soft
tissue infections
Cilastatin inhibits an enzyme that breaks down
imipenem
meropenem (Merrem) – bacterial meningitis
ertapenem (Invanz) - newest
36. aztreonam (Azactam)
Synthetic β-lactam antibiotic
Primarily active against aerobic gram-negative
bacteria (E. coli, Klebsiella spp., Pseudomonas spp.)
Bactericidal
Used for moderately severe systemic infections
and UTIs
37. Prevent protein synthesis within bacterial cells
Considered bacteriostatic - Bacteria will eventually die
In high enough concentrations, may also be
bactericidal
erythromycin (E-mycin
azithromycin (Zithromax)
clarithromycin (Biaxin)
Adverse Effects: GI effects, primarily with erythromycin
Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, hepatotoxicity, flatulence,
jaundice, anorexia
Newer drugs, azithromycin and clarithromycin: fewer GI
adverse effects, longer duration of action, better efficacy,
better tissue penetration
38. These drugs are highly protein-bound and will cause
severe interactions with other protein-bound
drugs
The absorption of oral erythromycin is enhanced
when taken on an empty stomach, but because
of the high incidence of GI upset, many drugs
are taken after a meal or snack
39. telithromycin (Ketek)
Only drug in this class
Better antibacterial coverage than macrolides
Active against gram-positive bacteria, including
multi-drug resistant strains of S. pneumoniae
Active against selected gram-negative bacteria
Indications:
Community-acquired pneumonia, acute bacterial sinusitis,
bacterial exacerbations of chronic bronchitis
Adverse reactions include:
Headache, dizziness, GI discomfort, altered potassium levels,
prolonged QT intervals
40. Natural and semisynthetic
Obtained from cultures of Streptomyces
Bacteriostatic—inhibit bacterial growth
Inhibit protein synthesis
Stop many essential functions of the bacteria
demeclocycline (Declomycin)
oxytetracycline
tetracycline
doxycycline (Doryx, Vibramycin)
Minocycline
41. Strong affinity for calcium
Discoloration of permanent teeth and tooth
enamel in fetuses and children, or nursing infants if
taken by the mother
May retard fetal skeletal development if taken
during pregnancy
Alteration in intestinal flora may result in:
Superinfection (overgrowth of nonsusceptible
organisms such as Candida)
Diarrhea
Pseudomembranous colitis
42. Milk products, iron preparations, antacids, and
other dairy products should be avoided because of
the chelation and drug-binding that occurs
All medications should be taken with 6 to 8 ounces
of fluid, preferably water
Due to photosensitivity, avoid sunlight and
tanning beds
43. Before beginning therapy, assess drug allergies; renal,
liver, and cardiac function; and other lab studies
Be sure to obtain patient health history, including
immune status
Assess for conditions that may be contraindications to
antibiotic use or that may indicate cautious use
Assess for potential drug interactions
It is ESSENTIAL to obtain cultures from
appropriate sites BEFORE beginning
antibiotic therapy
44. Each class of antibiotics has specific adverse
effects and drug interactions that must be
carefully assessed and monitored
The most common adverse effects of antibiotics
are nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea
All oral antibiotics are absorbed better if taken with
at least 6 to 8 ounces of water
45. Monitor for therapeutic effects
Improvement of signs and symptoms of infection
Return to normal vital signs
Negative culture and sensitivity tests
Disappearance of fever, lethargy, drainage, and
redness
Monitor for adverse reactions
47. Ototoxicity
Temporary or permanent hearing loss, balance
problems
Nephrotoxicity
Varying degrees of reduced renal function
Rising serum creatinine may indicate reduced creatinine
clearance
Monitor trough levels every 3 days while on
therapy or as ordered
49. Natural and semisynthetic
Produced from Streptomyces
Poor oral absorption; no PO forms
Very potent antibiotics with serious toxicities
Bactericidal; prevents protein synthesis
Kill mostly gram-negative; some gram-positive
50. Used to kill gram-negative bacteria Pseudomonas,
E. coli, Proteus, Klebsiella, Serratia
Often used in combination with other antibiotics for
synergistic effects
Certain gram-positive infections that are resistant to other
antibiotics
Aminoglycosides poorly absorbed through the GI tract - given IV
Exception: neomycin
Given orally or by enema - decontaminate the GI tract
before surgical procedures
51. Ototoxicity and nephrotoxicity are
the most significant
Headache
Paresthesia
Fever
Superinfections
Vertigo
Skin rash
Dizziness
53. Also called “quinolones”
Excellent oral absorption
Absorption reduced by antacids
Effective against gram-negative organisms and
some gram-positive organisms
Mechanism of Action:
Bactericidal
Alter DNA of bacteria, causing death
Do not affect human DNA
57. clindamycin (Cleocin)
Used for chronic bone infections, GU
infections, intraabdominal infections, other
serious infections
May cause pseudomembranous colitis
58. dapsone
Used for leprosy (Hansen’s disease), PJP
pneumonia associated with HIV/AIDS, other
uses
59. linezolid (Zyvox)
New class: oxazolidinones
Used to treat vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus
faecium (VREF, VRE), hospital-acquired skin and
skin structure infections, including those with
MRSA
May cause hypotension, serotonin syndrome if taken
with SSRIs, and reactions if taken with tyramine-
containing foods
60. nitrofurantoin (Macrodantin)
Primarily used for UTIs (E. coli, S. aureus,
Klebsiella spp., Enterobacter spp.)
Use carefully if renal function is impaired
Drug concentrates in the urine
Usually well-tolerated if patient is kept well-
hydrated
61. quinupristin and dalfopristin (Synercid)
30:70 combination, work synergistically
Used for bacteremia and infections caused by
vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus (VRE) and
other complicated skin infections
May cause arthralgias, myalgias
62. daptomycin (Cubicin)
New class: lipopeptide
Used to treat complicated skin and soft-tissue
infections
63. Natural, bactericidal antibiotic - Destroys cell wall
Treatment of choice for MRSA, and other gram-positive infections
Must monitor blood levels to ensure therapeutic levels and prevent toxicity
May cause ototoxicity and nephrotoxicity
Should be infused over 60 minutes -- Monitor IV site closely
Red man syndrome may occur
Flushing/itching of head, neck, face, upper trunk
Antihistamine may be ordered to reduce these effects
Ensure adequate hydration (2 L fluids/24 hr) if not contraindicated to
prevent nephrotoxicity
64. Before beginning therapy, assess drug allergies;
hepatic, renal, and cardiac function
Be sure to obtain thorough patient health history,
including immune status
Assess for conditions that may be contraindications
to antibiotic use or that may indicate cautious use
Assess for potential drug interactions
65. It is ESSENTIAL to obtain cultures
from appropriate sites BEFORE
beginning antibiotic therapy
66. Patients should be instructed to take antibiotics
exactly as prescribed and for the length of time
prescribed; they should not stop taking the
medication early when they feel better
Assess for signs and symptoms of superinfection:
fever, perineal itching, cough, lethargy, or any
unusual discharge
For safety reasons, check the name of the
medication carefully because there are many drugs
that sound alike or have similar spellings
67. Each class of antibiotics has specific
adverse effects and drug
interactions that must be carefully
assessed and monitored
68. Aminoglycosides
Monitor peak and trough blood levels of
these drugs to prevent nephrotoxicity and
ototoxicity
Symptoms of ototoxicity include dizziness,
tinnitus, and hearing loss
Symptoms of nephrotoxicity include urinary
casts, proteinuria, and increased BUN and
serum creatinine levels
69. Monitor for therapeutic effects
Improvement of signs and symptoms of infection
Return to normal vital signs
Negative culture and sensitivity tests
Disappearance of fever, lethargy, drainage, and
redness
Monitor for adverse reactions