SlideShare ist ein Scribd-Unternehmen logo
1 von 11
Congress ‘Education in Papua’, Gau, Friesland, The Netherlands,
30 January to 1 February 2009
Education in West Papua1
At Ipenburg2
Summary
The paper discusses and evaluates the development of education in West Papua. It wants to
answer questions about the type of education that is most effective for Papua and for the
Papuans. What are the lessons to be learnt from history? How can Dutch organizations help
in an effective way in education for Papuans from Kindergarten to university? The paper
looks at formal and non-formal forms of education and training and also analyzes the political
and social context in which education takes place.
0. Introduction
We can distinguish five periods in Papuan history and for each period we will analyze the
role of education. These periods are (a) early period till 1900, the period where traditional
education dominated, (b) The period 1900 to 1950, the early beginnings of mission
education, mainly to train evangelist and gurus for the simple village schools, (c) The period
1950 to 1962, where the Dutch Government tried to make a giant leap forwards in education
to prepare the Papuans for self government and independence. (d) The period 1962 to 1998,
the introduction of an Indonesian curriculum, stressing the values of the Orde Baru
Government of Soeharto, (e) The period 1998 to present, a period where there are new
margins for improvement of the effectiveness of education, for foreign assistance and fro an
adaptation of the curriculum to the local conditions, including the introduction of the mother
tongue in the first years of the primary school and for literacy classes.
Papuan culture is characterized by extreme diversity. On the island of New Guinea over
1,000 different languages are spoken, divided into 60 language families. In West Papua 271
languages are spoken. 3
Only one quarter of these languages has been studied. Cultures
1
I will use West Papua for the Western part of the island of New Guinea. Previous names for this territory
were: Papua Land (Tanah Papua), Nederlands Nieuw Guinee, Irian Barat, Irian Jaya and Papua. Since 2003 the
Province Papua has been divided into the provinces of West Papua (the Bird’s Head and the Raja Ampat islands
West of the Bird’s Head) with the capital at Manokwari and Papua with the capital; at Jayapura.
2
At Ipenburg (1945), studied political science, African history (doctorate) and systematic theology in
Amsterdam, London (SOAS) en Pretoria (UNISA). Ministerial studies in Leiden. Worked as lecturer and pastor in
the Netherlands, Zambia and Indonesia (West Papua). Taught from 1995 to 2002 anthropology, sociology and
ethics at the Theological College Izaak Samuel Kijne of the Evangelical Christian Church in Papua Land (GKI), also
Director of the Master’s Program Missiology and minister of the GKI. Board member of HAPIN; candidate for
D66 Democratsw at the European elections of June 2009.
3
For more information about the interesting topic of linguistic diversity in West Papua see: The Ethnologue,
web edition of the Summer Institute of Languages (SIL) at: http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?
name=IDP
1
show a similar diversity, indicating a creative genius of Papuans in this field. Traditional
forms of transfer of knowledge, like oral tradition, storytelling and rituals, have been
instrumental in preserving this diversity.
1. Early times to 1900: informal and non-formal education
For tens of thousands of years Papuans have been living on the island of New Guinea and
on other islands of the Indonesian archipelago and of the Pacific. On most islands the West
of New Guinea the Papuan population has declined, though remnants of it remain on Ceram
and Timor. People made a living by fishing, hunting, farming of sweet potatoes (batatas) and
vegetables, the pasture of pigs and the collecting of nuts and fruits in the forest.
The teaching of the skills to succeed was (and is) done in a non formal way. There is not
such a thing as a school, separated from society and specialized in the transfer of knowledge
to all age groups. Education was an integral part of traditional culture and imbedded in the
social structure. Young girls and boys were taught stories about the origins of the tribe and
clan, about the creation of the world, about the relationship between humans and the spiritual
world, with the animal and plant world in numerous stories. At the same time they were
taught all the practical skills needed for hunting and fighting to survive in a hostile
environment.
From an early age Papuans tend to live in men’s houses and women’s houses. Only the very
young boys were allowed to live with their mothers in the women’s house. The libraries of
this period were the memories of the old people and also the customs, beliefs that were
connected with sacred objects, with relationships in the social structure and with particular
places in the environment, like mountains, trees, lakes and so on. The schools were the
places where collective knowledge and skills were transferred to the new generation.
However, the school as an institution did not exist. Education was holistic and a part of every
aspect of traditional society.
2. 1900-1950: Mission education
The first missionaries Carl Ottow an d Johann Geissler, arrived on Sunday 5 February 1855
in West Papua on the island of Mansinam, close to Manokwari. They began by learning the
language and they prepared a word, list and grammar of the Numfor language. In 1863 the
Utrecht Mission Society joined the effort and send J.L. van Hasselt, other theologically
trained missionaries, but also some artisans. Local development was an integral part of
mission work. Formal education played an important role in bringing people into the fold of
the church. Education in a school building separated from other activities in society, was
2
something completely new. The first five decades the missionaries had very little success in
luring children to their schools. They tried to entice them with small gifts for their parents, just
as church goers would receive a small gift after the service. Several of the early pupils of
mission education were former slaves, bought to their freedom by the missionaries. They had
to do household chores, but also had to attend the house services in the house of the
missionary, the church services, twice on the Sunday, and to attend school. By 1890 school
attendacnce was 60, with 32 catechesis students. In 1892 two Papuans, Petrus Kafiar and
Timotheus Awendu, were send to the Depok Seminary, close to Jakarta, for training as
evangelists.
In 1898 and 1902 the Dutch Government established government posts in Manokwari, Fak-
Fak and Merauke. However, involvement with placed not in the immediate surroundings of
these three posts was minimal. Still, in the period following the establishment there was a
considerable increase in the number of Papuans who joined the church. By 1934 the mission
counted more than 50,000 Christians, most of them from the North of West Papua. There
was a similar growth in school attendance. In the same year the Utrecht Mission Society
(Utrechtse Zendingsvereniging,UZV) had in West Papua 157 schools with 8,650 pupils. The
UZV concentrated on Village Schools with a three years’ program. This was the method of
evangelization. A guru was send into a village to establish a school at the request of the
villagers, and at the same time he would establish a candidate congregation.
By 1937 the number of pupils on this type of schools had increased to 10,000. In 1942 the
Mission had 300 of these village schools. It had started to offer education in the local Papuan
languages, like the Numfor language in Mansinam and Wandamen (Windesi). However, the
Government demanded in 1911 already the use of Malay as a condition for its grants in aid.
Only the Numfor schools in the first year were exempted from this rule. Till 1950 there was
only attention for the teaching in Malay. The Dutch language did not play a role. These
village schools provided only the most rudimentary from of education. It is likely that even
those who learnt how to read and write soon fell back into illiteracy when they did not
practice their skills of reading and writing. Only those who continued to a higher form of
education benefitted. But only a very small percentage of pupils could continue. In 1937 for
50,000 pupils on the village schools there were only 50 places on the Upper Primary School
(grades 4 and 5) and 9 places on a vocational school.
The Roman Catholic Missionaries of the Sacred Heart of Jesus (MSC) of Tilburg, started in
1905 a post in the South, in Merauke. They introduced the concept of the model kampong,
where life for all residents was strictly regulated. It was argued that without such discipline
the Marind-anim tribe would disappear. A venereal disease had spread and taken epidemic
proportions through adherence to traditional customs and rituals, like the otiv bombari ritual
3
which demanded sexual relations of all members of the tribe with a few women. The idea
was not uncontroversial. For instance, the Swiss anthropologist Paul Wirz, who had done
extensive research among the Marind-anim, was vehemently opposed to the method, which
according to him took away the cultural identity of this proud people of warriors.
The development of schools in the Catholic area was much slower. However, from the late
1920s there emerged a competition between Protestants and Catholics for the establishment
of schools. The mission that had established in a village a school could claim the village for
its mission. By 1940 the Roman Catholic Mission had 30 elementary schools in the South,
and 173 schools in the West, around Fak-Fak and in the Bird’s Head, where competition with
the Protestants was strongest.
3. 1950-1962: Preparation for self determination
In 1949 the Netherlands handed over sovereignty to the Government of the Federal Republic
of Indonesia (RIS). New Guinea remained outside the agreement. Pressure from Australia
that wanted a friendly power to control New Guinea, which had been used by Japan as a
spring-board for the invasion of Australia, played a role in this decision. West Papua could
now receive the full attention from the Dutch Government. The Dutch reported progress to
the new United Nations organization, as the Papuans the Dutch, following the Charter of the
United Nations, were now preparing the Papuans for self government. Education became the
priority, and the missions were enabled to expand their educational systems enormously,
with generous grants in aid from the Government. Hundreds of teachers were recruited from
the Netherlands.
From 1938 onwards West Papua had known a so called “civilization school”
(“beschavingsschool”). The aim was “to civilize” the Papuans with subjects like order and
hygiene, playing, flute playing, singing, the preparation of parties, dancing, school gardens,
basket weaving and the Three Rs. From 1945 onwards “people’s schools” (“Volksscholen”)
were founded with a more academic curriculum of Malay, reading, drawing, writing, singing,
flute playing and handicraft. After seven years “Volksschool” the best pupils could continue
to a “Vervolgschool”, hence VVS, which provided in a three years’ course a type of basic
secondary education. The Protestants were at an advantage as they had more and better
schools, so more of their pupils could continue to more advanced education. At the VVS a
Papuan elite was being formed. Here Papuans were selected for further studies to become
teacher, police officer or government official. Also here those Papuans were trained, who
later represented the Territory at international conferences like those of the South Pacific.
4
In 1948 the Protestant Mission, the United Netherlands Mission (“Vereenigde Nederlandsche
Zending”or VNZ) had in Northern New Guinea (Hollandia, Sarmi, Serui and Biak) 34
civilization schools and a total of 154 people’s schools (“Volksscholen”) with 227 teachers, of
which, however, only 99 were fully qualified. In Western New Guinea (Fak-Fak and Sorong)
the VNZ, the Protestant Church of the Moluccas and Roman Catholic Mission had in 1953 60
people’s schools with 1,873 pupils and 98 civilization schools with 2,999 pupils. The only
school then which offered more than very basic education was the Vervolgschool with a
three years’ program, established in 1945 in Yoka on the Southern shore of Lake Sentani.
The brightest boys were recruited from all over the Territory. They were housed in a boarding
school (“asrama”).
In 1955 the number of “Volksscholen” under management of the VNZ had increased to 325,
with 16,000 pupils. It had also 100 unsupported schools, established by evangelists in
villages, with 3,000 pupils. The number of inhabitants of West Papua was estimated in 1961
to be 750,000. This means that only a very small part of the youth had access to some form
of education. The system, moreover, was very elitist. From each 100 pupils only one could
continue to the “Vervolgschool.” After the VVS only a few of the abiturients could continue to
the Primary Secondary School (“Primaire Middelbare School”or PMS) or to the Lower
Technical School or to Agriculture Schools.
There was a Primary Secondary School (“Primaire Middelbare School” or PMS) in Kota Raja
with 80 pupils, which you could attend after the six years Volksschool and Vervolgschool.
There was an effort to adapt the curriculum to the Papuan context. For instance, history
teaching was in the first grade the study of the Middle Ages and the emergence of the Dutch
state with William the Taciturn and William III, in the second grade the history of China and in
the third grade, the history of New Guinea, beginning with the voyages of the explorers.
In the 1950s there was a strong effort by the Catholics to catch up with the Protestants in the
area of education. In 1953 the Vicariate of Jayapura had 39 Franciscan Friars. There were
102 Catholic village schools, with 130 teachers and 3,500 pupils. Three quarters of the
schools received government grants in aid. There was a General Primary School (“Algemene
Lagere School”) that used Dutch as medium of instruction. Sorong and Fak-Fak had also
such a General Primary School with 400 pupils. In that year five Sisters from Heerlen came
to work in Kokonao and Enarotali. In 1958 the Catholics opened a lower secondary school
(“Primaire Middelbare School”, hence PMS) in Hollandia, which had already a Protestant PMS.
To summarize, till 1960 there were six types of primary education:
5
(a) The Pioneer School (DSc), (b) The Village School with a three years’ program. For most
pupils this was the final from of schooling, (c) Some Village Schools with a four years’
program, (d) The Village School with a “Vervolgschool”, (e) The Central Village School
Vervolgschool, which was of a lesser quality, compared to the Town School, and finally, (f)
The Town School (“Stadsschool” or LSB). By 1960 there was not a Teacher Training College
or “Kweekschool”.
The Government established government schools with Dutch as medium of instruction: the
General Primary School (“Algemene Lagere School” or ALS). It had two categories, the ALS
“A” for Dutch children, and the ALS “B”for Chinese children. Papua children who could prove
that at home the Dutch language was used could also attend these schools.
6. Since 1962: Indonesianisation and physical expansion of education
With the sudden, and quite unexpected, change of Government with the handing over of the
control of New Guinea, first to the UN and then to Indonesia, there was a discontinuity. The
Indonesians suspected everything that was Dutch. So from one day to the other in education
one had to change from Dutch to Malay or Bahasa Indonesia. All text books in Dutch were
taken out of the schools and burnt. All textbooks of the Dutch period were replaced by those used
in the rest of Indonesia, though the stories were in no way appropriate to the culture and scenery of
New Guinea. Papuan children had to learn about a Javanese boy named Ahmed and about
volcanoes, trains and railways stations. The educated Papuans in church, the educational system,
commerce and government were suspected of being pro-Dutch and, by implication, anti-Indonesian. In
the security approach of the Indonesian army this meant that these were people declared to be the
“enemies.” In December 1962 there was a night raid on the dormitories of the Teacher Training
College, the Civil Servants school (“Bestuursschool”), the Agricultural College and the Christian
schools in Kota Raja in Jayapura, led by Indonesian soldiers, using pro-Indonesian groups. Students
were beaten up and then transported to the military camp at Ifar Gunung, where they were imprisoned.
A considerable group of respected Papuans ended up in prison or were killed. Among them were
Eliezer Jan Bonay, the first governor of Irian Barat (Irian Jaya, West Papua), Rev. G. A. Lanta, the
former vice-chairman of the Synod of the GKI, Rev. Silas Chaay, secretary of the GKI, Rev. Osok of
the Moi tribe of the Bird’s Head, Saul Hindom, who had studied in Utrecht and was the leader of Shell
in Biak, Hank Yoka, the former secretary of the New Guinea Council, Alfeus Yoku, a leader from
Sentani and David Hanasbey, inspector of police in Jayapura. Permenas Yoku, a teacher in Sentani,
was killed at the end of 1963, because he refused to sign a pro-Indonesian declaration4
Johan Ariks,
former chairman of the Papua delegation at the Round Table Conference in 1949, died, at the age of
70, in Manokwari prison, after a speech he held on 1 July 1965, which was considered to be anti-
4
Z. Sawor, 1969: 40-45, quoting a Report by Silas Papare, member of the People’s Congress, Jakarta, 13 March
1967. Zacharias Sawor studied tropical agriculture in Deventer, the Netherlands, till 1962. He was treasurer of
Parkindo, West Irian Section, from 1963 till 1965. He was in prison from August 1965 till August 1966. In June
1967 he fled to Australian New Guinea. Since October 1968 he lives in the Netherlands.
6
Indonesian.Even the pro Indonesian Frits Kirihio, the first Papuan university graduate, ended up in
prison. 5
In 1969 there was a plebiscite which under strong intimidation of the Indonesian army did not produce
any dissent vote. After this Act of Free Choice the Government promised azutonomy for West Papua.
However, instead the territory got the status of Daerah Operasi Militer (DOM), which made the army
and police all powerful in the control of the people. There was a large influx of transmigrants, who
received plots of lands and grants, something that was not offered to local inhabitants. Moreover, a
great number of free migrants entered to settle. They occupied the major sections of the economy, like
building an retailing, but also the pasar, where products like vegetables and fish are sold. Papuans
cannot get in most cases a place in the market, but have to sell outside. According to the latest
statistics the number of indigenous people to immigrants is 52 to 48.6
The Indonesian Government made an effort to extend the educational system enormously. In 1971
already about 30,000 children over 10 years of age were at school.7
In 1980 the number of primary
schools had increased to 1,445, with almost 155,000 pupils and the number of lower and higher
secondary schools to 126, with almost 30,000 pupils. The University Cenderawasih in Abepura,
established in 1963, with four schools, had in 1976 1,039 students. 8
In 1996 of the 1.5 million
inhabitants of West Papua (Papuans and non-Papuans) 422,703 had completed their primary
education, 370,994 some form of secondary education or vocational training and as many as 11,682
had a university degree. 9
In May 1998, with the downfall of Soeharto and the ascent of Habibie, the era of Reformasi
began. There were hopes for a New Papua, but the period of Papuan Spring, were short-
lived. West Papua received a Special Autonomy Law in 2001 to meet the legitimate
aspirations of the Papuan people. It was offered as the same as Independence except for the
name. It did, however, not lead top real improvements in the situation of the Papuans as
many of the regulations of the law were never implemented. The number of immigrants
increased enormously, making the Papuans virtually a minority in their own land.
7. Conclusion
One should not idealize the short educational effort by the Dutch in the period 1950 to 1962.
The real value of it is in its principles of an education with the interest of the indigenous
people at heart. One could debate the efficacy of the system. The system only reached a
5
Frits Kirihio had been in the Dutch period leader of the Christian National Trade Union, which had at that time
800 members.
6
West Papua Fact Sheet, Franciscans International, 2009
7
Sensus Penduduk 1971, March 1974, Central Statistical Office, Jakarta.
8
Irian Jaya Dalam Angka 1980, Kantor Statistik Irian Jaya
9
Irian Jaya Dalam Angka 1996, Kantor Statistik Irian Jaya
7
very small part of the youth in the relevant age group. Those who left school, without any
continued education in a “Vervolgschool” could easily fall back into illiteracy. Nevertheless,
those who continued all the way played later important roles in Papuan society. Many of
these were perceived by the Indonesian military and civil authorities as a threat and when
some of them were to critical they were murdered without a form of process. Later also
outspoken Papuan leaders like Arnold Ap, Thomas Wanggai and Theys Eluay were
imprisoned and murdered. The perpetrators were never being brought to court.
After 1962 Indonesia made a great effort to extend education and there was an enormous
increase in the number of schools and colleges. Immediately, in 1963, West Papua got a
university, the Cenderawasih University (UNCEN). However, notwithstanding this effort West
Papua remained relatively deprived educationally. The adult illiteracy level is 26 %, while in
Indonesia as a whole it is 11 %. 10
Moreover, the competition with migrants from other parts
of Indonesia is strong and generally speaking Papuans have a disadvantage on the labour
market because of prejudice against them. Mainly in enclaves, like the church and schools
and colleges under management by the churches, Papuans have an opportunity to advance.
Recommendations
1. Ongoing advocacy for Papuan human rights, political rights and the right to self
determination as these rights are instrumental for an effective system of education.
2. Specific support in the form of scholarships, combined with a form of super vision and
counseling of the bursaries, individual help with the preparation of a study plan and training
in study skills. training to make written assignments and theses.
3. Study facilities connected to a school or institution where the bursaries study or to the
asrama where they live in th form of a class room or study room with simple PCs and
printers.
4. Pastoral guidance by a student chaplain. He or she would help the student to remain close
to the values received from the family and the congregation of origin of the church. Church
participation should be encouraged as it helps to give the student a feeling of personal value.
5. Specific training to improve one’s chances on employment, like courses in English, simple
accounting courses, courses in ICT, like web site design.
10
West Papua Fact Sheet, Franciscans International, 2009
8
6. A special training unit for preparing aspiring Master and PhD students for the TOEFL
exam to increase their chances for a scholarship.
7. Lobby for special places for Papua deserving students at institutions, sympathetic to the
Papua case, like the Christelijke Hogeschool Ede, the Theological University Kampen, the
Free University Amsterdam, The ISS, similar to the schems offered to Black students from
South Africa during Apartheid.
8. Scholarships to neighboring countries, like the Philippines, PNG, Australia, New Zealand
and Fiji.
9. Special support for study and research to Papua music, dance, sculpture and art. Attention
for Christian art.
10. Setting up a system, in collaboration with theological colleges in Papua, to analyze and
preserve local languages. The collecting of traditional stories and myths. Encouraging the
use of local languages in worship. Translating parts of Scripture in these languages, setting
up and encouraging literacy ;programs using local languages.
11. Support for the organization of sport competitions among students to learn fair play,
discipline and team effort.
12. Helping with informal forms of education, for instance by the churches to improve lay
leadership. A good example of this is the Sekolah Al Kitab Malam (SAM), set up by Rev
Scheuneman in various towns
Bibliography
http://www.papuaweb.org/sitemap.html
Boelaars, J. 1991. Met Papoea’s samen op weg. Deel 1: De pioniers. Het begin van een missie,
Kampen: Kok (Series Kerk en Theologie in Context, Vol. 18)
Boelaars, J. 1995. Met Papoea’s samen op weg. Deel 2: De baanbrekers. Het openleggen van het
binnenland, Kampen: Kok (Series Kerk en Theologie in Context, Vol. 31)
Boelaars, J. 1997. Met Papoea’s samen op weg. Deel 3: De begeleiders. Kampen: Kok (Series Kerk
en Theologie in Context, Vol. 35)
Cornelissen, J. F. L. M. 1988. Pater en Papoea. Ontmoeting van de Missionarissen van het Heilig Hart
met de cultuur der Papoea’s van Nederlands Zuid-Nieuw Guinea (1905-1963), Kampen: Kok (Series
Kerk en Theologie in Context, vol. 1)
9
De Neef, Alb. J. Heidendom op Nieuw Guinea, Oegstgeest: Het Zendingbureau
Giay, Benny 1995. Zakheus Pakage and His Communities, Amsterdam: Free University Press (Ph.D.
Thesis)
Giay, Benny 1999. The Conversion of Weakebo. A Big Man of the Me Community in the 1930s, in:
The Journal of Pacific History, 34, 2
GKI dalam arus-pokok masa kini. Sidang Synode Umum GKI ke-V pada tgl 15-27 Oktober 1968 di
Sukarnopura, diterbitkan oleh Dinas Penerangana, Propinsi Irian Barat, Sukarnopura (GKI, 1968)
Haripranata SJ (ed) 1967. Ichtisar Kronologis Sedjarah Geredja Katolik Irian-Barat, Djilid 1,
Sukarnapura: Pusat Katolik, Idem: Djilid 2, 1969 and Djilid 3, 1970
Hayward, Douglas J. 1980. The Dani of Irian Jaya. Before and After Conversion, Sentani: Regions Press
Ipenburg, A. N. 1999. Een Kerk van Migranten; Een Kerk van het Volk. Tegenstellingen in Irian Jaya, in:
Wereld en Zending, 28, 4: 78-82
Ipenburg, A. N. 2001. Melanesian Conversion, in: Missionalia, 29, 3:
Ipenburg, A N 2008. A History of the Church in West Papua, in: Karel Steenbrink and Jan
Aritonong, 2008, A History of the Church in Indonesia and East Timor, Leiden: Brill
Kamma, F. C. 1953. Kruis en Korwar. Een Honderdjarig Vraagstuk op Nieuw Guinea, Den Haag:
Voorhoeve
Kamma, F. C. 1972. Koreri. Messianic Movements in the Biak-Numfor Culture Area, The Hague:
Martinus Nijhoff, 1972.
Kamma, F. C. 1976. “Dit Wonderlijke Werk,” Het Probleem van de Communicatie tussen Oost en West
Gebaseerd op de Ervaringen in het Zendingswerk op Nieuw Guinea (Irian Jaya) 1855-1972. Een Socio-
missiologische Benadering, 2 vols, Oegstgeest: Raad voor de Zending der Ned. Hervormde Kerk
Lewis, Rodger 1995. Karya Kristus di Indonesia. Sejarah Gereja Kemah Injil Indonesia Sejak 1930,
Bandung: Kalam Hidup, 1995
Miedema, J and W A L Stockhof (eds), 1991. Memories van Overgave van de Afdeling Noord Nieuw
Guinea. Irian Jaya Source Materials No 2 Series A No 1, Leiden, Jakarta
Miedema, J and W A L Stockhof (eds), 1993. Memories van Overgave van de Afdeling West Nieuw
Guinea. Part II. Irian Jaya Source Materials No 6 Series A No 3, Leiden, Jakarta
Neilson, David John 2000. Christianity in Irian (West Papua), Ph. D. Thesis, University of Sydney,
Australia (unpublished)
10
Rauws, J. 1919. Nieuw-Guinea, Den Haag: Zendingsstudieraad (Serie: Onze Zendingsvelden)
Rumaimum, F. J. S. 1966. Sepuluh Tahun G.K.I. Sesuduh Seratus Tahun Zending di Irian Barat,
Soekarnapura: GKI
Sawor, Zacharias 1969. Ik ben een Papua, Een getuigeverslag van de toestanden in Westelijk Nieuw
Guinea sinds de gezagsoverdracht op 1 October 1962, Groningen: De Vuurbaak
Sejarah Gereja Katolik Indonesia, Jilid 3A, 1974. Jakarta: Bagian Dokumentasi Penerangan KWI
Slump, F. 1935. De Zending op West-Nieuw-Guinee, Oegstgeest: Zendingsbureau (reprint from
‘Mededelingen.’ Tijdschrift voor Zendingswetenschap).
Sunda, James 1963. Church Growth in the Central Highlands of West New Guinea, Lucknow: Lucknow
Publishing House
Tanamal, Goeroe Laurens 1952. De Roepstem Volgend. Autobiografie van Goeroe Laurens Tanamal,.
(tr. and ed. by F. C. Kamma) , Den Haag: Voorhoeve (Serie: Lichtstralen op de Akker der Wereld, 53, 2)
Trompf, G. W. 1991. Melanesian Religion, Cambridge: University Press
Ukur, F. and F. L. Cooley 1977. Suatu Survey Mengenai Gereja Kristen Irian Jaya, (Serie: Benih Yang
Tumbuh 8), Jakara: DGI
Van den Broek, OFM, Theo P. A. (et. al.) 2001. Memoria Passionis di Papua. Kondisi Sosial Politik dan
Hak Asasi Manusia Gambaran 2000, Jakarta: Sekretariat Keadilan dan Perdamaian (SKP) Keuskupan
Jayapura and Lembaga Studi Pers dan Pembangunan (LSPP)
Van Baal, J. 1966. Dema. Description and Analysis of Marind-Anim Culture (South New Guinea) (with
the collaboration of Fr. J. Verschueren MSC), The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff
Van Hasselt Jr, F. J. F. 1926. In het Land van de Papoea’s, Utrecht: Kemink & Zoon
Vlasblom, Dirk. 2004. Papoea. Een geschiedenis, Amsterdam: Mets & Schilt
Vreugdenhil, C. G. 1991. Vreemdelingen en Huisgenoten, Houten: Den Hertog
11

Weitere Àhnliche Inhalte

Andere mochten auch

Melanesian Conversion
Melanesian ConversionMelanesian Conversion
Melanesian ConversionAt Ipenburg
 
Het Evangelie in West Papoea
Het Evangelie in West PapoeaHet Evangelie in West Papoea
Het Evangelie in West PapoeaAt Ipenburg
 
Some Notes on the Murder of Theys Eluay in 2001
Some Notes on the Murder of Theys Eluay in 2001Some Notes on the Murder of Theys Eluay in 2001
Some Notes on the Murder of Theys Eluay in 2001At Ipenburg
 
Language Policy in West Papua and Indonesia
Language Policy in West Papua and Indonesia Language Policy in West Papua and Indonesia
Language Policy in West Papua and Indonesia At Ipenburg
 
The Structure of Government of Dutch New Guinea
The Structure of Government of Dutch New GuineaThe Structure of Government of Dutch New Guinea
The Structure of Government of Dutch New GuineaAt Ipenburg
 
Theys Eluay Martyr and Hero
Theys Eluay  Martyr and HeroTheys Eluay  Martyr and Hero
Theys Eluay Martyr and HeroAt Ipenburg
 
Papuans at Risk. Some personal observations
Papuans at Risk. Some personal observationsPapuans at Risk. Some personal observations
Papuans at Risk. Some personal observationsAt Ipenburg
 
The Churches and Human Rights in West Papua
The Churches and Human Rights in West PapuaThe Churches and Human Rights in West Papua
The Churches and Human Rights in West PapuaAt Ipenburg
 

Andere mochten auch (8)

Melanesian Conversion
Melanesian ConversionMelanesian Conversion
Melanesian Conversion
 
Het Evangelie in West Papoea
Het Evangelie in West PapoeaHet Evangelie in West Papoea
Het Evangelie in West Papoea
 
Some Notes on the Murder of Theys Eluay in 2001
Some Notes on the Murder of Theys Eluay in 2001Some Notes on the Murder of Theys Eluay in 2001
Some Notes on the Murder of Theys Eluay in 2001
 
Language Policy in West Papua and Indonesia
Language Policy in West Papua and Indonesia Language Policy in West Papua and Indonesia
Language Policy in West Papua and Indonesia
 
The Structure of Government of Dutch New Guinea
The Structure of Government of Dutch New GuineaThe Structure of Government of Dutch New Guinea
The Structure of Government of Dutch New Guinea
 
Theys Eluay Martyr and Hero
Theys Eluay  Martyr and HeroTheys Eluay  Martyr and Hero
Theys Eluay Martyr and Hero
 
Papuans at Risk. Some personal observations
Papuans at Risk. Some personal observationsPapuans at Risk. Some personal observations
Papuans at Risk. Some personal observations
 
The Churches and Human Rights in West Papua
The Churches and Human Rights in West PapuaThe Churches and Human Rights in West Papua
The Churches and Human Rights in West Papua
 

Ähnlich wie Education in West Papua

Colonial education2 slides 10 april 2013
Colonial education2 slides 10 april 2013Colonial education2 slides 10 april 2013
Colonial education2 slides 10 april 2013sphamandla shezi
 
Primitive School vs. Formal School
Primitive School vs. Formal SchoolPrimitive School vs. Formal School
Primitive School vs. Formal SchoolLora Berr
 
Report in The Curriculum and Development in the Philippines (sources are ackn...
Report in The Curriculum and Development in the Philippines (sources are ackn...Report in The Curriculum and Development in the Philippines (sources are ackn...
Report in The Curriculum and Development in the Philippines (sources are ackn...sarah_ichi07
 
Historical background of curriculum in the Philippines
Historical background of curriculum in the PhilippinesHistorical background of curriculum in the Philippines
Historical background of curriculum in the PhilippinesAROYLAROSALIEN
 
Curriculum devt in philippine's setting
Curriculum devt in philippine's settingCurriculum devt in philippine's setting
Curriculum devt in philippine's settingMary Grace Vargas
 
The Educational system in the Philippines -Rochelle Degala-Apatan
The Educational system in the Philippines -Rochelle Degala-ApatanThe Educational system in the Philippines -Rochelle Degala-Apatan
The Educational system in the Philippines -Rochelle Degala-Apatanrochelle apatan
 
Historical Foundations of the Philippine Curriculum
Historical Foundations of the Philippine CurriculumHistorical Foundations of the Philippine Curriculum
Historical Foundations of the Philippine CurriculumJen S
 
222 education in the philippines
222 education in the philippines222 education in the philippines
222 education in the philippinesBhoxz Chute Baes
 
The History of Philippine Education System Lecture No. 4.pptx
The History of Philippine Education System Lecture No. 4.pptxThe History of Philippine Education System Lecture No. 4.pptx
The History of Philippine Education System Lecture No. 4.pptxAbigailPanes1
 
Historical background-of-curriculum-in-the-philippines (1)
Historical background-of-curriculum-in-the-philippines (1)Historical background-of-curriculum-in-the-philippines (1)
Historical background-of-curriculum-in-the-philippines (1)Razelganloy
 
Curriculum Development ( Historical Perspective) Part 1
Curriculum Development ( Historical Perspective) Part 1Curriculum Development ( Historical Perspective) Part 1
Curriculum Development ( Historical Perspective) Part 1junalyn algones
 
Institutional History of Schools.pptx
Institutional History of Schools.pptxInstitutional History of Schools.pptx
Institutional History of Schools.pptxDaguilJoyceA
 
the history of the Philippines education (teaching profession)
the history of the Philippines education (teaching profession)the history of the Philippines education (teaching profession)
the history of the Philippines education (teaching profession)Lorein May Pabilona
 
THE_HISTORY_OF_THE_PHILIPPINES_EDUCATION.pdf
THE_HISTORY_OF_THE_PHILIPPINES_EDUCATION.pdfTHE_HISTORY_OF_THE_PHILIPPINES_EDUCATION.pdf
THE_HISTORY_OF_THE_PHILIPPINES_EDUCATION.pdflhye park
 
Historical foundation of philippine education
Historical foundation of philippine education Historical foundation of philippine education
Historical foundation of philippine education Michael John Labog
 
Backgroundofthe phil
Backgroundofthe philBackgroundofthe phil
Backgroundofthe philJhovz Solano
 
Part 1 - Historical Foundations of Education.pptx
Part 1 - Historical Foundations of Education.pptxPart 1 - Historical Foundations of Education.pptx
Part 1 - Historical Foundations of Education.pptxRichardBareng2
 
The History of Philippine Education System Lecture No. 4.pptx
The History of Philippine Education System Lecture No. 4.pptxThe History of Philippine Education System Lecture No. 4.pptx
The History of Philippine Education System Lecture No. 4.pptxAbigailPanes1
 
Aboriginal Education in the North
Aboriginal Education in the NorthAboriginal Education in the North
Aboriginal Education in the Northmurfinz
 

Ähnlich wie Education in West Papua (20)

Colonial education2 slides 10 april 2013
Colonial education2 slides 10 april 2013Colonial education2 slides 10 april 2013
Colonial education2 slides 10 april 2013
 
Primitive School vs. Formal School
Primitive School vs. Formal SchoolPrimitive School vs. Formal School
Primitive School vs. Formal School
 
Report in The Curriculum and Development in the Philippines (sources are ackn...
Report in The Curriculum and Development in the Philippines (sources are ackn...Report in The Curriculum and Development in the Philippines (sources are ackn...
Report in The Curriculum and Development in the Philippines (sources are ackn...
 
Historical background of curriculum in the Philippines
Historical background of curriculum in the PhilippinesHistorical background of curriculum in the Philippines
Historical background of curriculum in the Philippines
 
Curriculum devt in philippine's setting
Curriculum devt in philippine's settingCurriculum devt in philippine's setting
Curriculum devt in philippine's setting
 
The Educational system in the Philippines -Rochelle Degala-Apatan
The Educational system in the Philippines -Rochelle Degala-ApatanThe Educational system in the Philippines -Rochelle Degala-Apatan
The Educational system in the Philippines -Rochelle Degala-Apatan
 
Historical Foundations of the Philippine Curriculum
Historical Foundations of the Philippine CurriculumHistorical Foundations of the Philippine Curriculum
Historical Foundations of the Philippine Curriculum
 
222 education in the philippines
222 education in the philippines222 education in the philippines
222 education in the philippines
 
The History of Philippine Education System Lecture No. 4.pptx
The History of Philippine Education System Lecture No. 4.pptxThe History of Philippine Education System Lecture No. 4.pptx
The History of Philippine Education System Lecture No. 4.pptx
 
Historical background-of-curriculum-in-the-philippines (1)
Historical background-of-curriculum-in-the-philippines (1)Historical background-of-curriculum-in-the-philippines (1)
Historical background-of-curriculum-in-the-philippines (1)
 
Curriculum Development ( Historical Perspective) Part 1
Curriculum Development ( Historical Perspective) Part 1Curriculum Development ( Historical Perspective) Part 1
Curriculum Development ( Historical Perspective) Part 1
 
Regaining humanness - At Ipenburg
Regaining humanness - At IpenburgRegaining humanness - At Ipenburg
Regaining humanness - At Ipenburg
 
Institutional History of Schools.pptx
Institutional History of Schools.pptxInstitutional History of Schools.pptx
Institutional History of Schools.pptx
 
the history of the Philippines education (teaching profession)
the history of the Philippines education (teaching profession)the history of the Philippines education (teaching profession)
the history of the Philippines education (teaching profession)
 
THE_HISTORY_OF_THE_PHILIPPINES_EDUCATION.pdf
THE_HISTORY_OF_THE_PHILIPPINES_EDUCATION.pdfTHE_HISTORY_OF_THE_PHILIPPINES_EDUCATION.pdf
THE_HISTORY_OF_THE_PHILIPPINES_EDUCATION.pdf
 
Historical foundation of philippine education
Historical foundation of philippine education Historical foundation of philippine education
Historical foundation of philippine education
 
Backgroundofthe phil
Backgroundofthe philBackgroundofthe phil
Backgroundofthe phil
 
Part 1 - Historical Foundations of Education.pptx
Part 1 - Historical Foundations of Education.pptxPart 1 - Historical Foundations of Education.pptx
Part 1 - Historical Foundations of Education.pptx
 
The History of Philippine Education System Lecture No. 4.pptx
The History of Philippine Education System Lecture No. 4.pptxThe History of Philippine Education System Lecture No. 4.pptx
The History of Philippine Education System Lecture No. 4.pptx
 
Aboriginal Education in the North
Aboriginal Education in the NorthAboriginal Education in the North
Aboriginal Education in the North
 

KĂŒrzlich hochgeladen

Night 7k Call Girls Noida Sector 93 Escorts Call Me: 8448380779
Night 7k Call Girls Noida Sector 93 Escorts Call Me: 8448380779Night 7k Call Girls Noida Sector 93 Escorts Call Me: 8448380779
Night 7k Call Girls Noida Sector 93 Escorts Call Me: 8448380779Delhi Call girls
 
08448380779 Call Girls In Shahdara Women Seeking Men
08448380779 Call Girls In Shahdara Women Seeking Men08448380779 Call Girls In Shahdara Women Seeking Men
08448380779 Call Girls In Shahdara Women Seeking MenDelhi Call girls
 
DARK TRAVEL AGENCY presented by Khuda Bux
DARK TRAVEL AGENCY presented by Khuda BuxDARK TRAVEL AGENCY presented by Khuda Bux
DARK TRAVEL AGENCY presented by Khuda BuxBeEducate
 
08448380779 Call Girls In Chirag Enclave Women Seeking Men
08448380779 Call Girls In Chirag Enclave Women Seeking Men08448380779 Call Girls In Chirag Enclave Women Seeking Men
08448380779 Call Girls In Chirag Enclave Women Seeking MenDelhi Call girls
 
08448380779 Call Girls In Chhattarpur Women Seeking Men
08448380779 Call Girls In Chhattarpur Women Seeking Men08448380779 Call Girls In Chhattarpur Women Seeking Men
08448380779 Call Girls In Chhattarpur Women Seeking MenDelhi Call girls
 
💕đŸ“Č09602870969💓Girl Escort Services Udaipur Call Girls in Chittorgarh Haldighati
💕đŸ“Č09602870969💓Girl Escort Services Udaipur Call Girls in Chittorgarh Haldighati💕đŸ“Č09602870969💓Girl Escort Services Udaipur Call Girls in Chittorgarh Haldighati
💕đŸ“Č09602870969💓Girl Escort Services Udaipur Call Girls in Chittorgarh HaldighatiApsara Of India
 
08448380779 Call Girls In Bhikaji Cama Palace Women Seeking Men
08448380779 Call Girls In Bhikaji Cama Palace Women Seeking Men08448380779 Call Girls In Bhikaji Cama Palace Women Seeking Men
08448380779 Call Girls In Bhikaji Cama Palace Women Seeking MenDelhi Call girls
 
Top 10 Traditional Indian Handicrafts.pptx
Top 10 Traditional Indian Handicrafts.pptxTop 10 Traditional Indian Handicrafts.pptx
Top 10 Traditional Indian Handicrafts.pptxdishha99
 
Genesis 1:6 || Meditate the Scripture daily verse by verse
Genesis 1:6  ||  Meditate the Scripture daily verse by verseGenesis 1:6  ||  Meditate the Scripture daily verse by verse
Genesis 1:6 || Meditate the Scripture daily verse by versemaricelcanoynuay
 
đŸ”„HOTđŸ”„đŸ“Č9602870969đŸ”„Prostitute Service in Udaipur Call Girls in City Palace Lake...
đŸ”„HOTđŸ”„đŸ“Č9602870969đŸ”„Prostitute Service in Udaipur Call Girls in City Palace Lake...đŸ”„HOTđŸ”„đŸ“Č9602870969đŸ”„Prostitute Service in Udaipur Call Girls in City Palace Lake...
đŸ”„HOTđŸ”„đŸ“Č9602870969đŸ”„Prostitute Service in Udaipur Call Girls in City Palace Lake...Apsara Of India
 
Study Consultants in Lahore || 📞03094429236
Study Consultants in Lahore || 📞03094429236Study Consultants in Lahore || 📞03094429236
Study Consultants in Lahore || 📞03094429236Sherazi Tours
 
visa consultant | 📞📞 03094429236 || Best Study Visa Consultant
visa consultant | 📞📞 03094429236 || Best Study Visa Consultantvisa consultant | 📞📞 03094429236 || Best Study Visa Consultant
visa consultant | 📞📞 03094429236 || Best Study Visa ConsultantSherazi Tours
 
Hire 💕 8617697112 Champawat Call Girls Service Call Girls Agency
Hire 💕 8617697112 Champawat Call Girls Service Call Girls AgencyHire 💕 8617697112 Champawat Call Girls Service Call Girls Agency
Hire 💕 8617697112 Champawat Call Girls Service Call Girls AgencyNitya salvi
 
9 Days Kenya Ultimate Safari Odyssey with Kibera Holiday Safaris
9 Days Kenya Ultimate Safari Odyssey with Kibera Holiday Safaris9 Days Kenya Ultimate Safari Odyssey with Kibera Holiday Safaris
9 Days Kenya Ultimate Safari Odyssey with Kibera Holiday SafarisKibera Holiday Safaris Safaris
 
BERMUDA Triangle the mystery of life.pptx
BERMUDA Triangle the mystery of life.pptxBERMUDA Triangle the mystery of life.pptx
BERMUDA Triangle the mystery of life.pptxseri bangash
 

KĂŒrzlich hochgeladen (20)

Call Girls In Munirka đŸ“± 9999965857 đŸ€© Delhi đŸ«Š HOT AND SEXY VVIP 🍎 SERVICE
Call Girls In Munirka đŸ“±  9999965857  đŸ€© Delhi đŸ«Š HOT AND SEXY VVIP 🍎 SERVICECall Girls In Munirka đŸ“±  9999965857  đŸ€© Delhi đŸ«Š HOT AND SEXY VVIP 🍎 SERVICE
Call Girls In Munirka đŸ“± 9999965857 đŸ€© Delhi đŸ«Š HOT AND SEXY VVIP 🍎 SERVICE
 
Night 7k Call Girls Noida Sector 93 Escorts Call Me: 8448380779
Night 7k Call Girls Noida Sector 93 Escorts Call Me: 8448380779Night 7k Call Girls Noida Sector 93 Escorts Call Me: 8448380779
Night 7k Call Girls Noida Sector 93 Escorts Call Me: 8448380779
 
Call Girls Service !! New Friends Colony!! @9999965857 Delhi đŸ«Š No Advance VV...
Call Girls Service !! New Friends Colony!! @9999965857 Delhi đŸ«Š No Advance  VV...Call Girls Service !! New Friends Colony!! @9999965857 Delhi đŸ«Š No Advance  VV...
Call Girls Service !! New Friends Colony!! @9999965857 Delhi đŸ«Š No Advance VV...
 
Rohini Sector 18 Call Girls Delhi 9999965857 @Sabina Saikh No Advance
Rohini Sector 18 Call Girls Delhi 9999965857 @Sabina Saikh No AdvanceRohini Sector 18 Call Girls Delhi 9999965857 @Sabina Saikh No Advance
Rohini Sector 18 Call Girls Delhi 9999965857 @Sabina Saikh No Advance
 
08448380779 Call Girls In Shahdara Women Seeking Men
08448380779 Call Girls In Shahdara Women Seeking Men08448380779 Call Girls In Shahdara Women Seeking Men
08448380779 Call Girls In Shahdara Women Seeking Men
 
DARK TRAVEL AGENCY presented by Khuda Bux
DARK TRAVEL AGENCY presented by Khuda BuxDARK TRAVEL AGENCY presented by Khuda Bux
DARK TRAVEL AGENCY presented by Khuda Bux
 
08448380779 Call Girls In Chirag Enclave Women Seeking Men
08448380779 Call Girls In Chirag Enclave Women Seeking Men08448380779 Call Girls In Chirag Enclave Women Seeking Men
08448380779 Call Girls In Chirag Enclave Women Seeking Men
 
Call Girls đŸ«€ Connaught Place âžĄïž 9999965857 âžĄïž Delhi đŸ«Š Russian Escorts FULL ...
Call Girls đŸ«€ Connaught Place âžĄïž 9999965857  âžĄïž Delhi đŸ«Š  Russian Escorts FULL ...Call Girls đŸ«€ Connaught Place âžĄïž 9999965857  âžĄïž Delhi đŸ«Š  Russian Escorts FULL ...
Call Girls đŸ«€ Connaught Place âžĄïž 9999965857 âžĄïž Delhi đŸ«Š Russian Escorts FULL ...
 
08448380779 Call Girls In Chhattarpur Women Seeking Men
08448380779 Call Girls In Chhattarpur Women Seeking Men08448380779 Call Girls In Chhattarpur Women Seeking Men
08448380779 Call Girls In Chhattarpur Women Seeking Men
 
💕đŸ“Č09602870969💓Girl Escort Services Udaipur Call Girls in Chittorgarh Haldighati
💕đŸ“Č09602870969💓Girl Escort Services Udaipur Call Girls in Chittorgarh Haldighati💕đŸ“Č09602870969💓Girl Escort Services Udaipur Call Girls in Chittorgarh Haldighati
💕đŸ“Č09602870969💓Girl Escort Services Udaipur Call Girls in Chittorgarh Haldighati
 
Call Girls Service !! Indirapuram!! @9999965857 Delhi đŸ«Š No Advance VVVIP 🍎 S...
Call Girls Service !! Indirapuram!! @9999965857 Delhi đŸ«Š No Advance  VVVIP 🍎 S...Call Girls Service !! Indirapuram!! @9999965857 Delhi đŸ«Š No Advance  VVVIP 🍎 S...
Call Girls Service !! Indirapuram!! @9999965857 Delhi đŸ«Š No Advance VVVIP 🍎 S...
 
08448380779 Call Girls In Bhikaji Cama Palace Women Seeking Men
08448380779 Call Girls In Bhikaji Cama Palace Women Seeking Men08448380779 Call Girls In Bhikaji Cama Palace Women Seeking Men
08448380779 Call Girls In Bhikaji Cama Palace Women Seeking Men
 
Top 10 Traditional Indian Handicrafts.pptx
Top 10 Traditional Indian Handicrafts.pptxTop 10 Traditional Indian Handicrafts.pptx
Top 10 Traditional Indian Handicrafts.pptx
 
Genesis 1:6 || Meditate the Scripture daily verse by verse
Genesis 1:6  ||  Meditate the Scripture daily verse by verseGenesis 1:6  ||  Meditate the Scripture daily verse by verse
Genesis 1:6 || Meditate the Scripture daily verse by verse
 
đŸ”„HOTđŸ”„đŸ“Č9602870969đŸ”„Prostitute Service in Udaipur Call Girls in City Palace Lake...
đŸ”„HOTđŸ”„đŸ“Č9602870969đŸ”„Prostitute Service in Udaipur Call Girls in City Palace Lake...đŸ”„HOTđŸ”„đŸ“Č9602870969đŸ”„Prostitute Service in Udaipur Call Girls in City Palace Lake...
đŸ”„HOTđŸ”„đŸ“Č9602870969đŸ”„Prostitute Service in Udaipur Call Girls in City Palace Lake...
 
Study Consultants in Lahore || 📞03094429236
Study Consultants in Lahore || 📞03094429236Study Consultants in Lahore || 📞03094429236
Study Consultants in Lahore || 📞03094429236
 
visa consultant | 📞📞 03094429236 || Best Study Visa Consultant
visa consultant | 📞📞 03094429236 || Best Study Visa Consultantvisa consultant | 📞📞 03094429236 || Best Study Visa Consultant
visa consultant | 📞📞 03094429236 || Best Study Visa Consultant
 
Hire 💕 8617697112 Champawat Call Girls Service Call Girls Agency
Hire 💕 8617697112 Champawat Call Girls Service Call Girls AgencyHire 💕 8617697112 Champawat Call Girls Service Call Girls Agency
Hire 💕 8617697112 Champawat Call Girls Service Call Girls Agency
 
9 Days Kenya Ultimate Safari Odyssey with Kibera Holiday Safaris
9 Days Kenya Ultimate Safari Odyssey with Kibera Holiday Safaris9 Days Kenya Ultimate Safari Odyssey with Kibera Holiday Safaris
9 Days Kenya Ultimate Safari Odyssey with Kibera Holiday Safaris
 
BERMUDA Triangle the mystery of life.pptx
BERMUDA Triangle the mystery of life.pptxBERMUDA Triangle the mystery of life.pptx
BERMUDA Triangle the mystery of life.pptx
 

Education in West Papua

  • 1. Congress ‘Education in Papua’, Gau, Friesland, The Netherlands, 30 January to 1 February 2009 Education in West Papua1 At Ipenburg2 Summary The paper discusses and evaluates the development of education in West Papua. It wants to answer questions about the type of education that is most effective for Papua and for the Papuans. What are the lessons to be learnt from history? How can Dutch organizations help in an effective way in education for Papuans from Kindergarten to university? The paper looks at formal and non-formal forms of education and training and also analyzes the political and social context in which education takes place. 0. Introduction We can distinguish five periods in Papuan history and for each period we will analyze the role of education. These periods are (a) early period till 1900, the period where traditional education dominated, (b) The period 1900 to 1950, the early beginnings of mission education, mainly to train evangelist and gurus for the simple village schools, (c) The period 1950 to 1962, where the Dutch Government tried to make a giant leap forwards in education to prepare the Papuans for self government and independence. (d) The period 1962 to 1998, the introduction of an Indonesian curriculum, stressing the values of the Orde Baru Government of Soeharto, (e) The period 1998 to present, a period where there are new margins for improvement of the effectiveness of education, for foreign assistance and fro an adaptation of the curriculum to the local conditions, including the introduction of the mother tongue in the first years of the primary school and for literacy classes. Papuan culture is characterized by extreme diversity. On the island of New Guinea over 1,000 different languages are spoken, divided into 60 language families. In West Papua 271 languages are spoken. 3 Only one quarter of these languages has been studied. Cultures 1 I will use West Papua for the Western part of the island of New Guinea. Previous names for this territory were: Papua Land (Tanah Papua), Nederlands Nieuw Guinee, Irian Barat, Irian Jaya and Papua. Since 2003 the Province Papua has been divided into the provinces of West Papua (the Bird’s Head and the Raja Ampat islands West of the Bird’s Head) with the capital at Manokwari and Papua with the capital; at Jayapura. 2 At Ipenburg (1945), studied political science, African history (doctorate) and systematic theology in Amsterdam, London (SOAS) en Pretoria (UNISA). Ministerial studies in Leiden. Worked as lecturer and pastor in the Netherlands, Zambia and Indonesia (West Papua). Taught from 1995 to 2002 anthropology, sociology and ethics at the Theological College Izaak Samuel Kijne of the Evangelical Christian Church in Papua Land (GKI), also Director of the Master’s Program Missiology and minister of the GKI. Board member of HAPIN; candidate for D66 Democratsw at the European elections of June 2009. 3 For more information about the interesting topic of linguistic diversity in West Papua see: The Ethnologue, web edition of the Summer Institute of Languages (SIL) at: http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp? name=IDP 1
  • 2. show a similar diversity, indicating a creative genius of Papuans in this field. Traditional forms of transfer of knowledge, like oral tradition, storytelling and rituals, have been instrumental in preserving this diversity. 1. Early times to 1900: informal and non-formal education For tens of thousands of years Papuans have been living on the island of New Guinea and on other islands of the Indonesian archipelago and of the Pacific. On most islands the West of New Guinea the Papuan population has declined, though remnants of it remain on Ceram and Timor. People made a living by fishing, hunting, farming of sweet potatoes (batatas) and vegetables, the pasture of pigs and the collecting of nuts and fruits in the forest. The teaching of the skills to succeed was (and is) done in a non formal way. There is not such a thing as a school, separated from society and specialized in the transfer of knowledge to all age groups. Education was an integral part of traditional culture and imbedded in the social structure. Young girls and boys were taught stories about the origins of the tribe and clan, about the creation of the world, about the relationship between humans and the spiritual world, with the animal and plant world in numerous stories. At the same time they were taught all the practical skills needed for hunting and fighting to survive in a hostile environment. From an early age Papuans tend to live in men’s houses and women’s houses. Only the very young boys were allowed to live with their mothers in the women’s house. The libraries of this period were the memories of the old people and also the customs, beliefs that were connected with sacred objects, with relationships in the social structure and with particular places in the environment, like mountains, trees, lakes and so on. The schools were the places where collective knowledge and skills were transferred to the new generation. However, the school as an institution did not exist. Education was holistic and a part of every aspect of traditional society. 2. 1900-1950: Mission education The first missionaries Carl Ottow an d Johann Geissler, arrived on Sunday 5 February 1855 in West Papua on the island of Mansinam, close to Manokwari. They began by learning the language and they prepared a word, list and grammar of the Numfor language. In 1863 the Utrecht Mission Society joined the effort and send J.L. van Hasselt, other theologically trained missionaries, but also some artisans. Local development was an integral part of mission work. Formal education played an important role in bringing people into the fold of the church. Education in a school building separated from other activities in society, was 2
  • 3. something completely new. The first five decades the missionaries had very little success in luring children to their schools. They tried to entice them with small gifts for their parents, just as church goers would receive a small gift after the service. Several of the early pupils of mission education were former slaves, bought to their freedom by the missionaries. They had to do household chores, but also had to attend the house services in the house of the missionary, the church services, twice on the Sunday, and to attend school. By 1890 school attendacnce was 60, with 32 catechesis students. In 1892 two Papuans, Petrus Kafiar and Timotheus Awendu, were send to the Depok Seminary, close to Jakarta, for training as evangelists. In 1898 and 1902 the Dutch Government established government posts in Manokwari, Fak- Fak and Merauke. However, involvement with placed not in the immediate surroundings of these three posts was minimal. Still, in the period following the establishment there was a considerable increase in the number of Papuans who joined the church. By 1934 the mission counted more than 50,000 Christians, most of them from the North of West Papua. There was a similar growth in school attendance. In the same year the Utrecht Mission Society (Utrechtse Zendingsvereniging,UZV) had in West Papua 157 schools with 8,650 pupils. The UZV concentrated on Village Schools with a three years’ program. This was the method of evangelization. A guru was send into a village to establish a school at the request of the villagers, and at the same time he would establish a candidate congregation. By 1937 the number of pupils on this type of schools had increased to 10,000. In 1942 the Mission had 300 of these village schools. It had started to offer education in the local Papuan languages, like the Numfor language in Mansinam and Wandamen (Windesi). However, the Government demanded in 1911 already the use of Malay as a condition for its grants in aid. Only the Numfor schools in the first year were exempted from this rule. Till 1950 there was only attention for the teaching in Malay. The Dutch language did not play a role. These village schools provided only the most rudimentary from of education. It is likely that even those who learnt how to read and write soon fell back into illiteracy when they did not practice their skills of reading and writing. Only those who continued to a higher form of education benefitted. But only a very small percentage of pupils could continue. In 1937 for 50,000 pupils on the village schools there were only 50 places on the Upper Primary School (grades 4 and 5) and 9 places on a vocational school. The Roman Catholic Missionaries of the Sacred Heart of Jesus (MSC) of Tilburg, started in 1905 a post in the South, in Merauke. They introduced the concept of the model kampong, where life for all residents was strictly regulated. It was argued that without such discipline the Marind-anim tribe would disappear. A venereal disease had spread and taken epidemic proportions through adherence to traditional customs and rituals, like the otiv bombari ritual 3
  • 4. which demanded sexual relations of all members of the tribe with a few women. The idea was not uncontroversial. For instance, the Swiss anthropologist Paul Wirz, who had done extensive research among the Marind-anim, was vehemently opposed to the method, which according to him took away the cultural identity of this proud people of warriors. The development of schools in the Catholic area was much slower. However, from the late 1920s there emerged a competition between Protestants and Catholics for the establishment of schools. The mission that had established in a village a school could claim the village for its mission. By 1940 the Roman Catholic Mission had 30 elementary schools in the South, and 173 schools in the West, around Fak-Fak and in the Bird’s Head, where competition with the Protestants was strongest. 3. 1950-1962: Preparation for self determination In 1949 the Netherlands handed over sovereignty to the Government of the Federal Republic of Indonesia (RIS). New Guinea remained outside the agreement. Pressure from Australia that wanted a friendly power to control New Guinea, which had been used by Japan as a spring-board for the invasion of Australia, played a role in this decision. West Papua could now receive the full attention from the Dutch Government. The Dutch reported progress to the new United Nations organization, as the Papuans the Dutch, following the Charter of the United Nations, were now preparing the Papuans for self government. Education became the priority, and the missions were enabled to expand their educational systems enormously, with generous grants in aid from the Government. Hundreds of teachers were recruited from the Netherlands. From 1938 onwards West Papua had known a so called “civilization school” (“beschavingsschool”). The aim was “to civilize” the Papuans with subjects like order and hygiene, playing, flute playing, singing, the preparation of parties, dancing, school gardens, basket weaving and the Three Rs. From 1945 onwards “people’s schools” (“Volksscholen”) were founded with a more academic curriculum of Malay, reading, drawing, writing, singing, flute playing and handicraft. After seven years “Volksschool” the best pupils could continue to a “Vervolgschool”, hence VVS, which provided in a three years’ course a type of basic secondary education. The Protestants were at an advantage as they had more and better schools, so more of their pupils could continue to more advanced education. At the VVS a Papuan elite was being formed. Here Papuans were selected for further studies to become teacher, police officer or government official. Also here those Papuans were trained, who later represented the Territory at international conferences like those of the South Pacific. 4
  • 5. In 1948 the Protestant Mission, the United Netherlands Mission (“Vereenigde Nederlandsche Zending”or VNZ) had in Northern New Guinea (Hollandia, Sarmi, Serui and Biak) 34 civilization schools and a total of 154 people’s schools (“Volksscholen”) with 227 teachers, of which, however, only 99 were fully qualified. In Western New Guinea (Fak-Fak and Sorong) the VNZ, the Protestant Church of the Moluccas and Roman Catholic Mission had in 1953 60 people’s schools with 1,873 pupils and 98 civilization schools with 2,999 pupils. The only school then which offered more than very basic education was the Vervolgschool with a three years’ program, established in 1945 in Yoka on the Southern shore of Lake Sentani. The brightest boys were recruited from all over the Territory. They were housed in a boarding school (“asrama”). In 1955 the number of “Volksscholen” under management of the VNZ had increased to 325, with 16,000 pupils. It had also 100 unsupported schools, established by evangelists in villages, with 3,000 pupils. The number of inhabitants of West Papua was estimated in 1961 to be 750,000. This means that only a very small part of the youth had access to some form of education. The system, moreover, was very elitist. From each 100 pupils only one could continue to the “Vervolgschool.” After the VVS only a few of the abiturients could continue to the Primary Secondary School (“Primaire Middelbare School”or PMS) or to the Lower Technical School or to Agriculture Schools. There was a Primary Secondary School (“Primaire Middelbare School” or PMS) in Kota Raja with 80 pupils, which you could attend after the six years Volksschool and Vervolgschool. There was an effort to adapt the curriculum to the Papuan context. For instance, history teaching was in the first grade the study of the Middle Ages and the emergence of the Dutch state with William the Taciturn and William III, in the second grade the history of China and in the third grade, the history of New Guinea, beginning with the voyages of the explorers. In the 1950s there was a strong effort by the Catholics to catch up with the Protestants in the area of education. In 1953 the Vicariate of Jayapura had 39 Franciscan Friars. There were 102 Catholic village schools, with 130 teachers and 3,500 pupils. Three quarters of the schools received government grants in aid. There was a General Primary School (“Algemene Lagere School”) that used Dutch as medium of instruction. Sorong and Fak-Fak had also such a General Primary School with 400 pupils. In that year five Sisters from Heerlen came to work in Kokonao and Enarotali. In 1958 the Catholics opened a lower secondary school (“Primaire Middelbare School”, hence PMS) in Hollandia, which had already a Protestant PMS. To summarize, till 1960 there were six types of primary education: 5
  • 6. (a) The Pioneer School (DSc), (b) The Village School with a three years’ program. For most pupils this was the final from of schooling, (c) Some Village Schools with a four years’ program, (d) The Village School with a “Vervolgschool”, (e) The Central Village School Vervolgschool, which was of a lesser quality, compared to the Town School, and finally, (f) The Town School (“Stadsschool” or LSB). By 1960 there was not a Teacher Training College or “Kweekschool”. The Government established government schools with Dutch as medium of instruction: the General Primary School (“Algemene Lagere School” or ALS). It had two categories, the ALS “A” for Dutch children, and the ALS “B”for Chinese children. Papua children who could prove that at home the Dutch language was used could also attend these schools. 6. Since 1962: Indonesianisation and physical expansion of education With the sudden, and quite unexpected, change of Government with the handing over of the control of New Guinea, first to the UN and then to Indonesia, there was a discontinuity. The Indonesians suspected everything that was Dutch. So from one day to the other in education one had to change from Dutch to Malay or Bahasa Indonesia. All text books in Dutch were taken out of the schools and burnt. All textbooks of the Dutch period were replaced by those used in the rest of Indonesia, though the stories were in no way appropriate to the culture and scenery of New Guinea. Papuan children had to learn about a Javanese boy named Ahmed and about volcanoes, trains and railways stations. The educated Papuans in church, the educational system, commerce and government were suspected of being pro-Dutch and, by implication, anti-Indonesian. In the security approach of the Indonesian army this meant that these were people declared to be the “enemies.” In December 1962 there was a night raid on the dormitories of the Teacher Training College, the Civil Servants school (“Bestuursschool”), the Agricultural College and the Christian schools in Kota Raja in Jayapura, led by Indonesian soldiers, using pro-Indonesian groups. Students were beaten up and then transported to the military camp at Ifar Gunung, where they were imprisoned. A considerable group of respected Papuans ended up in prison or were killed. Among them were Eliezer Jan Bonay, the first governor of Irian Barat (Irian Jaya, West Papua), Rev. G. A. Lanta, the former vice-chairman of the Synod of the GKI, Rev. Silas Chaay, secretary of the GKI, Rev. Osok of the Moi tribe of the Bird’s Head, Saul Hindom, who had studied in Utrecht and was the leader of Shell in Biak, Hank Yoka, the former secretary of the New Guinea Council, Alfeus Yoku, a leader from Sentani and David Hanasbey, inspector of police in Jayapura. Permenas Yoku, a teacher in Sentani, was killed at the end of 1963, because he refused to sign a pro-Indonesian declaration4 Johan Ariks, former chairman of the Papua delegation at the Round Table Conference in 1949, died, at the age of 70, in Manokwari prison, after a speech he held on 1 July 1965, which was considered to be anti- 4 Z. Sawor, 1969: 40-45, quoting a Report by Silas Papare, member of the People’s Congress, Jakarta, 13 March 1967. Zacharias Sawor studied tropical agriculture in Deventer, the Netherlands, till 1962. He was treasurer of Parkindo, West Irian Section, from 1963 till 1965. He was in prison from August 1965 till August 1966. In June 1967 he fled to Australian New Guinea. Since October 1968 he lives in the Netherlands. 6
  • 7. Indonesian.Even the pro Indonesian Frits Kirihio, the first Papuan university graduate, ended up in prison. 5 In 1969 there was a plebiscite which under strong intimidation of the Indonesian army did not produce any dissent vote. After this Act of Free Choice the Government promised azutonomy for West Papua. However, instead the territory got the status of Daerah Operasi Militer (DOM), which made the army and police all powerful in the control of the people. There was a large influx of transmigrants, who received plots of lands and grants, something that was not offered to local inhabitants. Moreover, a great number of free migrants entered to settle. They occupied the major sections of the economy, like building an retailing, but also the pasar, where products like vegetables and fish are sold. Papuans cannot get in most cases a place in the market, but have to sell outside. According to the latest statistics the number of indigenous people to immigrants is 52 to 48.6 The Indonesian Government made an effort to extend the educational system enormously. In 1971 already about 30,000 children over 10 years of age were at school.7 In 1980 the number of primary schools had increased to 1,445, with almost 155,000 pupils and the number of lower and higher secondary schools to 126, with almost 30,000 pupils. The University Cenderawasih in Abepura, established in 1963, with four schools, had in 1976 1,039 students. 8 In 1996 of the 1.5 million inhabitants of West Papua (Papuans and non-Papuans) 422,703 had completed their primary education, 370,994 some form of secondary education or vocational training and as many as 11,682 had a university degree. 9 In May 1998, with the downfall of Soeharto and the ascent of Habibie, the era of Reformasi began. There were hopes for a New Papua, but the period of Papuan Spring, were short- lived. West Papua received a Special Autonomy Law in 2001 to meet the legitimate aspirations of the Papuan people. It was offered as the same as Independence except for the name. It did, however, not lead top real improvements in the situation of the Papuans as many of the regulations of the law were never implemented. The number of immigrants increased enormously, making the Papuans virtually a minority in their own land. 7. Conclusion One should not idealize the short educational effort by the Dutch in the period 1950 to 1962. The real value of it is in its principles of an education with the interest of the indigenous people at heart. One could debate the efficacy of the system. The system only reached a 5 Frits Kirihio had been in the Dutch period leader of the Christian National Trade Union, which had at that time 800 members. 6 West Papua Fact Sheet, Franciscans International, 2009 7 Sensus Penduduk 1971, March 1974, Central Statistical Office, Jakarta. 8 Irian Jaya Dalam Angka 1980, Kantor Statistik Irian Jaya 9 Irian Jaya Dalam Angka 1996, Kantor Statistik Irian Jaya 7
  • 8. very small part of the youth in the relevant age group. Those who left school, without any continued education in a “Vervolgschool” could easily fall back into illiteracy. Nevertheless, those who continued all the way played later important roles in Papuan society. Many of these were perceived by the Indonesian military and civil authorities as a threat and when some of them were to critical they were murdered without a form of process. Later also outspoken Papuan leaders like Arnold Ap, Thomas Wanggai and Theys Eluay were imprisoned and murdered. The perpetrators were never being brought to court. After 1962 Indonesia made a great effort to extend education and there was an enormous increase in the number of schools and colleges. Immediately, in 1963, West Papua got a university, the Cenderawasih University (UNCEN). However, notwithstanding this effort West Papua remained relatively deprived educationally. The adult illiteracy level is 26 %, while in Indonesia as a whole it is 11 %. 10 Moreover, the competition with migrants from other parts of Indonesia is strong and generally speaking Papuans have a disadvantage on the labour market because of prejudice against them. Mainly in enclaves, like the church and schools and colleges under management by the churches, Papuans have an opportunity to advance. Recommendations 1. Ongoing advocacy for Papuan human rights, political rights and the right to self determination as these rights are instrumental for an effective system of education. 2. Specific support in the form of scholarships, combined with a form of super vision and counseling of the bursaries, individual help with the preparation of a study plan and training in study skills. training to make written assignments and theses. 3. Study facilities connected to a school or institution where the bursaries study or to the asrama where they live in th form of a class room or study room with simple PCs and printers. 4. Pastoral guidance by a student chaplain. He or she would help the student to remain close to the values received from the family and the congregation of origin of the church. Church participation should be encouraged as it helps to give the student a feeling of personal value. 5. Specific training to improve one’s chances on employment, like courses in English, simple accounting courses, courses in ICT, like web site design. 10 West Papua Fact Sheet, Franciscans International, 2009 8
  • 9. 6. A special training unit for preparing aspiring Master and PhD students for the TOEFL exam to increase their chances for a scholarship. 7. Lobby for special places for Papua deserving students at institutions, sympathetic to the Papua case, like the Christelijke Hogeschool Ede, the Theological University Kampen, the Free University Amsterdam, The ISS, similar to the schems offered to Black students from South Africa during Apartheid. 8. Scholarships to neighboring countries, like the Philippines, PNG, Australia, New Zealand and Fiji. 9. Special support for study and research to Papua music, dance, sculpture and art. Attention for Christian art. 10. Setting up a system, in collaboration with theological colleges in Papua, to analyze and preserve local languages. The collecting of traditional stories and myths. Encouraging the use of local languages in worship. Translating parts of Scripture in these languages, setting up and encouraging literacy ;programs using local languages. 11. Support for the organization of sport competitions among students to learn fair play, discipline and team effort. 12. Helping with informal forms of education, for instance by the churches to improve lay leadership. A good example of this is the Sekolah Al Kitab Malam (SAM), set up by Rev Scheuneman in various towns Bibliography http://www.papuaweb.org/sitemap.html Boelaars, J. 1991. Met Papoea’s samen op weg. Deel 1: De pioniers. Het begin van een missie, Kampen: Kok (Series Kerk en Theologie in Context, Vol. 18) Boelaars, J. 1995. Met Papoea’s samen op weg. Deel 2: De baanbrekers. Het openleggen van het binnenland, Kampen: Kok (Series Kerk en Theologie in Context, Vol. 31) Boelaars, J. 1997. Met Papoea’s samen op weg. Deel 3: De begeleiders. Kampen: Kok (Series Kerk en Theologie in Context, Vol. 35) Cornelissen, J. F. L. M. 1988. Pater en Papoea. Ontmoeting van de Missionarissen van het Heilig Hart met de cultuur der Papoea’s van Nederlands Zuid-Nieuw Guinea (1905-1963), Kampen: Kok (Series Kerk en Theologie in Context, vol. 1) 9
  • 10. De Neef, Alb. J. Heidendom op Nieuw Guinea, Oegstgeest: Het Zendingbureau Giay, Benny 1995. Zakheus Pakage and His Communities, Amsterdam: Free University Press (Ph.D. Thesis) Giay, Benny 1999. The Conversion of Weakebo. A Big Man of the Me Community in the 1930s, in: The Journal of Pacific History, 34, 2 GKI dalam arus-pokok masa kini. Sidang Synode Umum GKI ke-V pada tgl 15-27 Oktober 1968 di Sukarnopura, diterbitkan oleh Dinas Penerangana, Propinsi Irian Barat, Sukarnopura (GKI, 1968) Haripranata SJ (ed) 1967. Ichtisar Kronologis Sedjarah Geredja Katolik Irian-Barat, Djilid 1, Sukarnapura: Pusat Katolik, Idem: Djilid 2, 1969 and Djilid 3, 1970 Hayward, Douglas J. 1980. The Dani of Irian Jaya. Before and After Conversion, Sentani: Regions Press Ipenburg, A. N. 1999. Een Kerk van Migranten; Een Kerk van het Volk. Tegenstellingen in Irian Jaya, in: Wereld en Zending, 28, 4: 78-82 Ipenburg, A. N. 2001. Melanesian Conversion, in: Missionalia, 29, 3: Ipenburg, A N 2008. A History of the Church in West Papua, in: Karel Steenbrink and Jan Aritonong, 2008, A History of the Church in Indonesia and East Timor, Leiden: Brill Kamma, F. C. 1953. Kruis en Korwar. Een Honderdjarig Vraagstuk op Nieuw Guinea, Den Haag: Voorhoeve Kamma, F. C. 1972. Koreri. Messianic Movements in the Biak-Numfor Culture Area, The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1972. Kamma, F. C. 1976. “Dit Wonderlijke Werk,” Het Probleem van de Communicatie tussen Oost en West Gebaseerd op de Ervaringen in het Zendingswerk op Nieuw Guinea (Irian Jaya) 1855-1972. Een Socio- missiologische Benadering, 2 vols, Oegstgeest: Raad voor de Zending der Ned. Hervormde Kerk Lewis, Rodger 1995. Karya Kristus di Indonesia. Sejarah Gereja Kemah Injil Indonesia Sejak 1930, Bandung: Kalam Hidup, 1995 Miedema, J and W A L Stockhof (eds), 1991. Memories van Overgave van de Afdeling Noord Nieuw Guinea. Irian Jaya Source Materials No 2 Series A No 1, Leiden, Jakarta Miedema, J and W A L Stockhof (eds), 1993. Memories van Overgave van de Afdeling West Nieuw Guinea. Part II. Irian Jaya Source Materials No 6 Series A No 3, Leiden, Jakarta Neilson, David John 2000. Christianity in Irian (West Papua), Ph. D. Thesis, University of Sydney, Australia (unpublished) 10
  • 11. Rauws, J. 1919. Nieuw-Guinea, Den Haag: Zendingsstudieraad (Serie: Onze Zendingsvelden) Rumaimum, F. J. S. 1966. Sepuluh Tahun G.K.I. Sesuduh Seratus Tahun Zending di Irian Barat, Soekarnapura: GKI Sawor, Zacharias 1969. Ik ben een Papua, Een getuigeverslag van de toestanden in Westelijk Nieuw Guinea sinds de gezagsoverdracht op 1 October 1962, Groningen: De Vuurbaak Sejarah Gereja Katolik Indonesia, Jilid 3A, 1974. Jakarta: Bagian Dokumentasi Penerangan KWI Slump, F. 1935. De Zending op West-Nieuw-Guinee, Oegstgeest: Zendingsbureau (reprint from ‘Mededelingen.’ Tijdschrift voor Zendingswetenschap). Sunda, James 1963. Church Growth in the Central Highlands of West New Guinea, Lucknow: Lucknow Publishing House Tanamal, Goeroe Laurens 1952. De Roepstem Volgend. Autobiografie van Goeroe Laurens Tanamal,. (tr. and ed. by F. C. Kamma) , Den Haag: Voorhoeve (Serie: Lichtstralen op de Akker der Wereld, 53, 2) Trompf, G. W. 1991. Melanesian Religion, Cambridge: University Press Ukur, F. and F. L. Cooley 1977. Suatu Survey Mengenai Gereja Kristen Irian Jaya, (Serie: Benih Yang Tumbuh 8), Jakara: DGI Van den Broek, OFM, Theo P. A. (et. al.) 2001. Memoria Passionis di Papua. Kondisi Sosial Politik dan Hak Asasi Manusia Gambaran 2000, Jakarta: Sekretariat Keadilan dan Perdamaian (SKP) Keuskupan Jayapura and Lembaga Studi Pers dan Pembangunan (LSPP) Van Baal, J. 1966. Dema. Description and Analysis of Marind-Anim Culture (South New Guinea) (with the collaboration of Fr. J. Verschueren MSC), The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff Van Hasselt Jr, F. J. F. 1926. In het Land van de Papoea’s, Utrecht: Kemink & Zoon Vlasblom, Dirk. 2004. Papoea. Een geschiedenis, Amsterdam: Mets & Schilt Vreugdenhil, C. G. 1991. Vreemdelingen en Huisgenoten, Houten: Den Hertog 11