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Non destructive testing basics
1.
ATSNY© 2012 1 Basic
Nondestructive Testing for EXPO 2012 by Neville W. Sachs, P.E. Applied Technical Services New York
2.
ATSNY© 2012 2 What
we plan to cover 1. Definition of nondestructive testing 2. Some philosophy on why it is helpful and the major pitfalls 3. Basic theory 4. Explanations of common techniques 5. Demonstrations of common analysis techniques
3.
ATSNY© 2012 3 Nondestructive
Testing (NDT) Also known as nondestructive examination (NDE) Involves inspection and analysis of machinery or components without affecting the operation or the properties of the subject. (As opposed to a tensile test or other destructive test such as sectioning.)
4.
ATSNY© 2012 4 From
the ASNT Website (American Society for Nondestructive Testing) What Is Nondestructive Testing? Nondestructive testing asks “Is there something wrong with this material?” Nondestructive testing (NDT) has been defined as … “those test methods used to examine an object, material or system without impairing its future usefulness.”
5.
ATSNY© 2012 5 The
British View (BINDT) “Non-destructive testing is the branch of engineering concerned with all methods of detecting and evaluating flaws in materials.” “The essential feature of NDT is that the test process itself produces no deleterious effects on the material or structure under test.” “The subject of NDT has no clearly defined boundaries …”
6.
ATSNY© 2012 6 A
Brief History Formal NDE dates back to early railroad days when a mixture of oil and talc were used to detect cracking in axles and wheels. Since then science has developed a wide range of tools and abilities to noninvasively detect problems before they become disasters.
7.
ATSNY© 2012 7 Wikipedia
says nondestructive testing is … Acoustic emission testing (AE or AT) Blue Etch Anodize (BEA) Dye penetrant inspection Liquid penetrant testing (PT or LPI) Electromagnetic testing (ET) • Alternating current field measurement (ACFM) • Alternating current potential drop measurement (ACPD) • Barkhausen testing • Direct current potential drop measurement (DCPD) • Eddy-current testing (ECT) • Magnetic flux leakage testing (MFL) for pipelines, tank floors, and wire rope • Magnetic-particle inspection (MT or MPI) • Remote field testing (RFT) Ellipsometry Guided wave testing (GWT) Hardness testing Impulse excitation technique (IET) Infrared and thermal testing (IR) • Thermographic inspection Laser testing • Electronic speckle pattern interferometry • Holographic interferometry • Low coherence interferometry • Profilometry • Shearography Leak testing (LT) or Leak detection • Absolute pressure leak testing (pressure change) • Bubble testing • Halogen diode leak testing • Hydrogen leak testing • Mass spectrometer leak testing • Tracer-gas leak testing method Helium, Hydrogen and refrigerant gases Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and NMR spectroscopy Metallographic replicas [7] [8] Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) Optical microscopy Positive Material Identification (PMI) Radiographic testing (RT) (see also Industrial radiography and Radiography) Computed radiography Digital radiography (real-time) Neutron radiographic testing (NR) SCAR (Small Controlled Area Radiography) X-ray computed tomography (CT) Scanning electron microscopy Surface Temper Etch (Nital Etch) Ultrasonic testing (UT) ART (Acoustic Resonance Technology) Electro Magnetic Acoustic Transducer (EMAT) (non-contact) Laser ultrasonics (LUT) Internal rotary inspection system (IRIS) ultrasonics for tubes Phased array ultrasonics Time of flight diffraction ultrasonics (TOFD) Time of Flight Ultrasonic Determination of 3D Elastic Constants (TOF) Vibration Analysis Visual inspection (VT) Pipeline video inspection Corroscan/C-scan IRIS - Internal Rotary Inspection System 3D Computed Tomography Industrial CT Scanning Heat Exchanger Life Assessment System RTJ Flange Special Ultrasonic Testing
8.
ATSNY© 2012 8 So,
going back to the ASNT website, these are the common NDT techniques Acoustic Emission Eddy Current Liquid Penetrant Magnetic Particle Ultrasonic Testing Visual Inspection Vibration Analysis Radiography (X-ray) Also common are: Infrared Thermography Hardness Testing
9.
ATSNY© 2012 9 Your
Personal NDT When you go to the market to select fruit or veggies, what do you do? How do you make your choice? If your car is making a new strange noise, what do you do? Do you ever glance at your car tires to see if they are soft?
10.
ATSNY© 2012 10 The
goal – A. Look at it without causing a damaging interruption B. Use the test information to form a plan
11.
ATSNY© 2012 11 NDT
in everyday life Would you rather have an MRI - or should we do exploratory surgery for that knee problem? Would you prefer an EKG or exploratory surgery? For both of these, consider the possible costs and the possible benefits.
12.
ATSNY© 2012 12 The
goal of NDT is to analyze a piece of material, without damaging its performance capabilities, and then use that information to predict future performance. The graph below shows leaks in the roof of a process vessel. (Replacing the vessel will cost about $50,000,000 and take about a year.) 300 200 100 0 4 Routine inspections of a vessel with stress corrosion cracking Roof leaks vs. Inspection date Years from vessel installation Numberofleaks 8 12 16 20
13.
ATSNY© 2012 13 The
goal – Look at it without causing a damaging interruption So, not only can we look at and inside pieces, but we want to do that without causing an interruption. Then a question arises - Do humans really commit that many errors?
14.
ATSNY© 2012 14 Human
Error Experts say the average person makes six significant errors per week. BUT, our surveys show the typical industry person believes they make a significant error about once every FIVE months
15.
ATSNY© 2012 15 In
23 years of doing industrial training programs and asking people to compare their skills with others in the same job, only 37 people have rated themselves as below average! For the last six years we have also asked people to rate their safety awareness. Only TWO have said they were below average!!! ( 23 years x 15 seminars/year x 15 people/seminar = 5100 students 37/5100 = 0.7% )
16.
ATSNY© 2012 16 How
Often Do Human Errors Happen? (From Chemical Engineering Magazine, McGraw Hill, NY,NY) Industrial Activities • Critical routine task - 1/1000 • Non-critical routine task - 3/1000 • General error rate for high stress rapid activities - 1/4 • Non-routine operations (startup, maintenance, etc.) - 1/100 • Checklist inspection - 1/10 General Human Error • of Observance - 1/50 • of Omission - 1/100
17.
ATSNY© 2012 17 How
Often Do Human Errors Happen? (From Chemical Engineering Magazine, McGraw Hill, NY,NY) Industrial Activities • Critical routine task - 1/1000 • Non-critical routine task - 3/1000 • General error rate for high stress rapid activities - 1/4 • Non-routine operations (startup, maintenance, etc.) - 1/100 • Checklist inspection - 1/10 General Human Error • of Observance - 1/50 • of Omission - 1/100
18.
ATSNY© 2012 18 Infant
MortalityFailureProbability The "Reliability Bathtub" Time (log scale) Normal Run Period Wear out Infant Mortality The period right after the machine is started. These failures are usually related to errors in assembly. Normal Run Period The long stable time when successful operation can be expected. Failure in this time is usually from unexpected wear or a change in operating conditions. Wear out - A function of the original design
19.
ATSNY© 2012 19 So,
what % of equipment actually suffers from Infant Mortality It really depends on the training of the installation personnel and their training and care. There is data from studies of maintenance activities around the country and have seen it range from a low of about 5% to as high as 22%! Several North American studies have shown the average is about 14% substantially defective!
20.
ATSNY© 2012 20 The
most important benefits of NDT are that it allows us to inspect materials and machinery: 1. Without introducing infant mortality. 2. Without damaging the material.
21.
ATSNY© 2012 21 And
.. The data shows that: All humans make frequent errors. We tend not to recognize those errors. The benefit of NDT is that it can find defective material/equipment without damaging the pieces and without the interruptions that increase the probability of human error.
22.
ATSNY© 2012 22 Common
Uses for NDT • Component/machine condition evaluation – Example – Inspection of a ski lift component or an elevator rope. •Predictive method - Vibration analysis on motors, and pumps, infrared inspection of transformers. •Product and/or material quality assurance – Examples – Run-in test on a new vehicle, cleanliness of steel
23.
ATSNY© 2012 23 The
PE’s Challenge We are asking technicians to conduct an inspection. They are not engineers and, by definition, must have criteria to inspect to, i.e., have to know what is considered a defect.
24.
ATSNY© 2012 24 So,
before we ask for a specific NDT, we have to know what to ask for! Q. What is the difference between a flaw and a defect? A. Almost all materials have lots of flaws. When the flaw impacts the performance of the material, it becomes a defect.
25.
ATSNY© 2012 25 Important
Terminology - Defects and Flaws All parts have “flaws” of some magnitude but the parts are not necessarily defective. A defective component is one that will not perform as required for the necessary time. A “defect” is a deviation from what is allowable.
26.
ATSNY© 2012 26 Dialogue
of a Common Problem Client - “We want our xyz part mag particle tested. Can you do that?” Us – “Sure, we do lots of mag particle testing. What is your standard?” Client – “Huh? The drawing says it has to be tested.” Us – “Does the drawing have a spec on it?” Client – “Yeah. It says MIL-TDD41.” (Unfortunately, that is a mil spec that was retired in 1990 and the last issue described a procedure, without specifying flaw tolerances.) Us – “Let’s talk about what you really need.” (More than once, we’ve have had people ask us to MagnaFlux aluminum parts!)
27.
ATSNY© 2012 27 So,
before we ask for an NDT, we have to know what to ask for! … and one of the significant challenges is to define what is considered a defect. In a precision machined part, a 0.04” flaw may be a defect, but in a large casting, it may be just a 0.4” flaw!
28.
ATSNY© 2012 28 Defects
or Flaws??? When NDE people talk about flaws (not serious stuff) they’re called indications. Defects are called “relevant indications”.
29.
ATSNY© 2012 29 Next,
the inspection should be done by a qualified and certified person.
30.
ATSNY© 2012 30 Certification
A certified inspector is a person who has demonstrated their capabilities and met a legal requirement. Please don’t risk your life or your reputation by having inexperienced and uncertified inspectors do the work. (Would you want to have a surgeon operate on you who practices once a year? Or one who has developed his skill by watching other people do the job?)
31.
ATSNY© 2012 31 ASNT
Personnel Qualifications Level I – Can conduct a test under Level II supervision Level II – Knows what they are doing within specific inspection area Level III - Knows and can perform a wide range of NDT methods (Typical inspector may be certified Level II in VT, PT, MT, and UT)
32.
ATSNY© 2012 32 Some
of the more common NDT methods Acoustic Emission Eddy Current Liquid Penetrant Magnetic Particle Ultrasonic Testing Visual Inspection Thermography Vibration Analysis Radiography (X-ray) Hardness Testing
33.
ATSNY© 2012 33 Some
of the more common NDT methods Acoustic Emission Eddy Current Liquid Penetrant Magnetic Particle Ultrasonic Testing Visual Inspection Thermography Vibration Analysis Radiography (X-ray) Hardness Testing
34.
ATSNY© 2012 34 Visual
Inspection An assurance that the person conducting the inspection can see and recognize the indications. Certification in VT is largely directed toward weld inspection. However, to maintain any certification, visual acuity is tested every year.
35.
ATSNY© 2012 35 We
have actually had experience doing these: Acoustic Emission Eddy Current Liquid Penetrant Magnetic Particle Ultrasonic Testing Visual Inspection Thermography Vibration Analysis Radiography (X-ray) Hardness Testing
36.
ATSNY© 2012 36 Glossary
DEFECT – A flaw that can significantly impact the performance of the material FLAW – An irregularity in the material TRANSDUCER – a device that converts a mechanical force to and electrical signal and vice-versa RELEVANT INDICATION – something to be concerned about
37.
ATSNY© 2012 37 Acoustic
Emission (AE) Common Applications Pressure vessels, especially tank cars Fiberglass and other composite tanks Long term bridge structure monitoring
38.
ATSNY© 2012 38 x x
x x x x Computer Inspected vessel Acoustic Emission (AE) Start with a selection of transducers that are wired into a computer. Securely anchor the transducers to a vessel or structure in precisely determined positions. The computer records the high frequency signals from the transducers.
39.
ATSNY© 2012 39 Acoustic
Emission (AE) Start with a selection of transducers that are wired into a computer. Securely anchor the transducers to a vessel wall in precisely determined positions. One time test • Increase the pressure (stress) in the vessel above the normally experienced pressures (stresses). Long term test • Compare the recorded data over the time period Analyze the noises detected by the transducers. If the noises are relevant, triangulate the signal and specify additional testing in that area.
40.
ATSNY© 2012 40 A D
E B C F Computer Inspected vessel * Acoustic Emission (AE) Start with a selection of transducers that are wired into a computer. When the noise signals exceed a limit, triangulate the indication. Then do further inspection in that area with other methods. *
41.
ATSNY© 2012 41 Eddy
Current (EC) Common Applications Heat exchanger tubes Aircraft fuselage and wing surfaces Easily contacted surfaces Tube and wire production Ferrous and nonferrous bar production
42.
ATSNY© 2012 42 Eddy
Current (EC)Testing A probe with an AC field is moved across a metallic surface at a relatively controlled speed and the response from the field is monitored. When the field is interrupted by a change in the structure, the response changes.
43.
ATSNY© 2012 43 Radiography
(X-rays) Common Applications Critical fabrication welds Any material inspection where a record has to be available for future reference Searching for unwanted contaminating materials
44.
ATSNY© 2012 44 Penetrant
Testing “PT”
45.
ATSNY© 2012 45 Penetrant
Testing “PT” We’re going to do a penetrant test, but it is a relatively time consuming procedure (and it is also more prone to human error than other NDT). So within the “PT time”, we’re going to do a magnetic particle test.
46.
ATSNY© 2012 46 The
Types There are three types of penetrant tests but the common ones are those using either visible or fluorescent dyes. The photo to the right shows the results of a visible penetrant test on a vessel weld.
47.
ATSNY© 2012 47 The
Types Also, there are solvent cleanable and water washable tests. We’ll do a solvent- based test.
48.
ATSNY© 2012 48 Visible
PT - How it works 1. We suspect our piece has a defect that is open to the surface. So we thoroughly clean the surface. Then allow the part to dry. (5-10 minutes) 2. Next, we spray a coating of a thin red liquid, the penetrant, onto the surface and allow the liquid to be absorbed into the defect. (5 to 25 minutes)
49.
ATSNY© 2012 49 Visible
PT - How it works 3. Then we thoroughly clean the surface again, but carefully, so we don’t clean the penetrant out of the defect. Then we allow the part to dry. ( 5 to 10 min.) 4. Next, we spray a very thin layer of a white paint-like material onto the surface, allow the “paint” to absorb the penetrant out of the defect, (5 to 15 minutes) and visually inspect the piece.
50.
ATSNY© 2012 50 The
Procedure 1. Clean 2. Spray penetrant 3. Dwell 4. Carefully clean off excess penetrant 5. Spray developer 6. Wait and watch
51.
ATSNY© 2012 51 The Procedure
This shows a weld inspection. One of our people is waiting for the penetrant dwell period inside a large process vessel.
52.
ATSNY© 2012 52 Visible Penetrant After
the penetrant is cleaned off, the developer is sprayed. Note that there is no dye remaining!!
53.
ATSNY© 2012 53 Applications
Parts with cracks open to the atmosphere that can be cleaned well For mechanical components - structural components or aluminum, stainless, or steel, etc. Relatively inexpensive initial cost for materials
54.
ATSNY© 2012 54 What
can it find Really depends on the surface cleanliness and roughness. On polished stainless parts we have found cracks that were 0.00004” wide and 0.003” deep!
55.
ATSNY© 2012 55 PT
Problem Areas Is probably the most frequently misused NDT technique. Frequently done by inexperienced personnel leading to gross procedure errors, misinterpretation, and wasted $$$. Requires careful and thorough precleaning before penetrant application. Grinding and other mechanical power cleaning can hide indications. Time consuming, manpower intensive and greatest opportunity for human error.
56.
ATSNY© 2012 56 PT
Demonstration
57.
ATSNY© 2012 57 Magnetic
Particle Testing “MT”
58.
ATSNY© 2012 58 MT
Procedure 1. Generally inspect the part and review the testing criteria. 2. Clean the part well. 3. Set up a magnetic field in one direction. 4. Cover the field area with a contrasting magnetic medium. (Can be a dry powder or an oil with fluorescent particles.) 5. Set up a magnetic field in another direction. 6. Again, cover the field area with a contrasting magnetic medium. 7. Inspect the areas where the particles accumulate.
59.
ATSNY© 2012 59 Set
up the Magnetic Field SouthNorth Steel or Nickel Plate Particles on Edges of FlawFlaw SouthNorth Then find the irregularities
60.
ATSNY© 2012 60 MT
Procedure 1. Clean the part well. 2. Set up a magnetic field. 3. Cover the field area with a contrasting magnetic medium. (Can be a dry powder or an oil with fluorescent particles.) 4. Inspect the areas where the particles accumulate.
61.
ATSNY© 2012 61 Two views
of a weld crack This is WFMP testing – wet fluorescent mag particle. It is viewed with a black light. Results of MT inspection with black light Showing attracted particles after exam
62.
ATSNY© 2012 62 MP
Tests Dry powder particles Both of these exams used wet fluorescent particles
63.
ATSNY© 2012 63 Typical
Applications of MT Steel parts and martensitic stainless with cracks open to the atmosphere. (not many nickel parts) Moderate initial cost for materials. Lowest applied cost.
64.
ATSNY© 2012 64 MT
Problem Areas Training is not extensive or expensive and leads to good results. Requires an understanding of the magnetic fields. Can’t be used on nonmagnetic materials. Poor cleaning and grinding can hide defects. Generally WFMP is far superior to dry particle testing.
65.
ATSNY© 2012 65 Dry
Magnetic Particle Demo
66.
ATSNY© 2012 66 Infrared
Inspection Infrared inspections allows us to see thermal images (radiation) much as our eyes see visual images.
67.
ATSNY© 2012 67 A
Belt Drive on a Air Handler We can see that the belt temperatures are suspect. (c) 2012 by Applied Technical Services, Inc.
68.
ATSNY© 2012 68 We
can see that these belts are much too hot and are slipping. (c) 2012 by Applied Technical Services, Inc.
69.
ATSNY© 2012 69 Infrared
Inspection Applications Transformers, switchgear, and other electrical equipment where there may be poor connections, etc. Insulation system effectiveness (air leaks, wet insulation) Process equipment liquid levels, etc. Steam trap operation
70.
ATSNY© 2012 70 Infrared
Inspection Cautions Two common errors with scanners: • Reflections – In much the same manner as light reflects, infrared radiation can also reflect and give erroneous readings • Emissivity – Black body objects have significantly different emissivity that polished and shiny objects and the images will differ. With hand-held infrared thermometers – They will average the temperature over a given target area, and that may be much larger than your area of interest!
71.
ATSNY© 2012 71 Infrared
Thermography Demonstration Rather than me give a demo of how an infrared scanner works, I’ll pass one of ours around so you can look through it. COMMENTS: • It is focused for the range from about 5 feet to infinity. • I know this is a bunch of engineers that want to play with controls, so I’ve taped the controls closed so the next person doesn’t get a useless demo! (If you want to play with it, please see me afterward.)
72.
ATSNY© 2012 72 Ultrasonic
Flaw and Thickness Testing - “UT”
73.
ATSNY© 2012 73 UT Common
Applications Thickness testing of tanks, vessels, piping, etc. Quality inspection of components such as forgings, castings, welds, etc., looking for internal voids Flaw testing of materials looking for process induced cracking (bolts, shafts, etc.)
74.
ATSNY© 2012 74 Ultrasonic
Audible Sound - 20 to 20,000 cps (Hz) Normal UT Range • 100,000 to 25,000,000 Hz • 0.1 to 25 MHz Wavelength = Velocity/Frequency 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10,000,000 Sub sonic Cycles per second (Hertz) UltrasonicAudible to Humans
75.
ATSNY© 2012 75 UT
Application A field check on a weld of a large process vessel
76.
ATSNY© 2012 76 Wave
Types Longitudinal Shear Surface Plate Others Selection depends on application.
77.
ATSNY© 2012 77 UT
Transducer Housing Damping Material Piezoelectric Crystal Power Cable Inspected Material Sound Pattern Transducer sends out a sound wave and then reads the reflected wave To get an accurate measurement, the signal has to be essentially perpendicular to the flaw FLAW
78.
ATSNY© 2012 78 Ultrasonic
Testing Ultrasonic Device Transducer 1.500" Sound Wave The “black box” generates a signal and sends it to the transducer, then reads the signals returning from changes in “Acoustic Impedance”.
79.
ATSNY© 2012 79 Thickness
Testing Ultrasonic Thickness Tester Transducer Used to measure the thickness of materials1.500" Sound Wave
80.
ATSNY© 2012 80 Straight
beam transducer Housing Damping Material Piezoelectric Crystal Power Cable Inspected Material Sound Pattern
81.
ATSNY© 2012 81 Angle
beam transducer Housing Piezoelectric Crystal Power Cable Inspected Material Plastic Wedge 45 deg 60 deg 70 deg Changing Wedges results in different signal paths But what do you do when the flaw lies at an odd angle? (such as a weld)
82.
ATSNY© 2012 82 Ultrasonic
Flaw Tester Transducer Used to search for internal variations in materials Ultrasonic Flaw Tester Transducer Sound echoes back from changes in acoustic impedence UT Flaw Testing
83.
ATSNY© 2012 83 dB Calibrated
Distance Relativepower(dB) 6 dB Calibrated Distance Relativepower(dB) How does the technician know the true size of the flaw? Compare the size of the echoes and we know that 6dB represents a doubling in size. Flaw Testing
84.
ATSNY© 2012 84 UT
Flaw Testing Demonstration
85.
ATSNY© 2012 85 UT
Testing Comments What sort of accuracy is there when a digital Thickness Tester is used and the backwall isn't flat? Transducer 1.500" Where does that sound wave reflection go?
86.
ATSNY© 2012 86 Common
UT Application 53 1/4"22 1/4" 228 13/16" 70 1/2" 31.3" 18 3/4" 64 1/16" 20" 29.49" 25.49" 27" 30.00" 30" Bearing Fit Bearing Fit Drum Fit Find the depth of the crack in this headshaft crack
87.
ATSNY© 2012 87 Unusual
UT Inspection Application Transducer Flaw Tester Screen Axle Axle and Hub Assembly Ideal Sound Path Testing the shrink fit tightness
88.
ATSNY© 2012 88 Transducer Flaw
Tester Screen Axle Axle and Hub Assembly Loose Fit Sound Path Unusual UT Inspection Application (cont’d) Finding it is loose!!
89.
ATSNY© 2012 89 Phased
Array UT Courtesy of Olympus NDT Newer UT Method This is essentially the same as the ultrasound tests used on humans and animals. There are multiple crystals in the transducer and the computer software analyzes them.
90.
ATSNY© 2012 90 Common
Applications Complex and Internal Welds Shafts Bolts Internal areas that are hard to inspect with other methods but have a known crack geometry
91.
ATSNY© 2012 91 UT
Problems Areas Very operator intensive Requires good knowledge of the part geometry Insensitive to flaws that are basically parallel to the sound path Have to have certified, qualified inspector
92.
ATSNY© 2012 92 Vibration
Analysis A. Purpose of Vibration Analysis B. Basic Principles of Vibration Analysis C. Basic Terminology
93.
ATSNY© 2012 93 Vibration
Analysis As mechanical machinery became larger and more complex, science began to realize the problems that resulted from excessive vibration. By the end of WWII the first methods to analyze and control vibration had been developed. Vibration analysis is used to measure machinery movement to understand why it is happening.
94.
ATSNY© 2012 94 Comments •
Frequently used as an acceptance gage on new machinery. • Is an excellent comparative method for monitoring machine condition. • On existing operating machinery, monitoring and analyzing vibration data allows for very early warnings (2-3 months) of impending failures. • The data is relatively easy to gather and, with computers and software programs, relatively easy to handle. • Requires skilled, well-trained and certified inspectors.
95.
ATSNY© 2012 95 Vibration
Analysis Example Readings on the motor and the pump tell us the condition of the bearings and the coupling, the alignment, and whether the base, grout, and foundation are in good condition. High frequency monitoring of the bearings can tell us the lubricant film thickness. Trending of this data can alert us to worsening problems. Motor Coupling Pump Base Plate Foundation Block Grout
96.
ATSNY© 2012 96 Typical
Machine Monitoring How often do you have to check? That depends on the operating conditions and the criticality of the machine. It could vary from once per month to once every six months. Motor Coupling Pump Base Plate Foundation Block Grout
97.
ATSNY© 2012 97 Vibration
Terminology Measurement Units Amplitude - Describes the amount of vibration and is expressed in three ways. • Displacement (miles) • Velocity ** (miles/hour) • Acceleration (0 to 60 mph time) Frequency - Describes the periodical nature of the vibration and is expressed in one of three ways; • CPM or Cycles Per Minute • Hz or CPS or Cycles Per Second • Orders or multiple of a frequency of interest
98.
ATSNY© 2012 98 Looking
at a Vibration Spectrum Misalignment, imbalance, structural problems, etc. Bearing, gear, and lubrication problems Overall reading gives a general guide to the machine condition. A M P L I T U D E FREQUENCY – CPM or Hertz
99.
ATSNY© 2012 99 Data
Trending A doctor doesn’t need a lot of your medical history to diagnose a broken arm, but it does help your long-term health to understand how blood pressure, cholesterol, etc., are changing. In a similar manner, the vibration analyst can immediately spot imminent serious problems, but trending of data can alert the site to longer term situations.
100.
ATSNY© 2012 100 100 One
Last Nondestructive Inspection Method – Hardness Testing There is a relationship between hardness and tensile strength. The relationship is much better for some (steel) than for others (cast iron, rock). The harder a material is, the stronger it is.
101.
ATSNY© 2012 101 Commonly
used as a QC tool to readily verify the tensile strength or other property of a metal or plastic. Metals – Rockwell and Brinell are the common types of test Plastics – Barcol Elastomers - Durometer Hardness Testing
102.
ATSNY© 2012 102 102 Hardness
vs. Tensile Strength for Steel 200 300 400 500 Tensilestrength(ksi) 80 0 Brinell Hardness Number 40 120 160 200 240 Typical Hardness - Tensile Strength Range for Steel data from SAE handbook 100 HBN x 500 ≈ Tensile Strength HRC x 10 ≈ HBN Easy Conversions
103.
ATSNY© 2012 103 103 Brinell
Hardness Circa 1900 Two common scales, 500 kg and 3000 kg Very good for castings where there may be inhomogenities Problems with thin materials Applied Load 10 mm ball Measure impression diameter, interpret from ASTM chart d
104.
ATSNY© 2012 104 104 Rockwell
Hardness 13 ranges - with the most common as HRC, HRB, HRA Operation - Apply a minor load to reduce surface effects, then apply the major load. After movement stops measure the change in depth. Versatile - with a wide range of applications Minor load depth Major load depth Indenter with load depending on scale Rockwell test indenters include diamonds and balls. The loads vary from 15 to 150 kg.
105.
ATSNY© 2012 105 There
are lots of other NDT tools available from coating thickness gauges to magnetic flux leakage devices (checking for loss of material in tubes and tank floors) to X-ray diffraction (checking for residual stress in metallic components).
106.
ATSNY© 2012 106 How
do we suggest YOU should approach NDT? Sit down with your knowledgeable folks and ask yourselves what your real materials, mechanical, and electrical challenges or unknowns are. Then ask, “Can they be anticipated?” If the answer is either “Yes” or “I don’t know.”, call somebody in the NDT business, describe your problem, and ask them for their ideas.
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