10 fighter aircraft avionics - part iii

Fighter Aircraft Avionics
Part III
SOLO HERMELIN
Updated: 04.04.13
1

Table of Content
SOLO
2
Introduction
Jet Fighter Generations
Second Generation (1950-1965(
Third Generation (1965-1975(
First generation (1945-1955(
Fourth Generation (1970-2010(
4.5Generation
Fifth Generation (1995 - 2025(
Aircraft Avionics
Third Generation Avionics
Fourth Generation Avionics
4.5Generation Avionics
Fifth Generation Avionics
Cockpit Displays
Communication (internal and external(
Data Entry and Control
Flight Control
Fighter Aircraft

Table of Content (continue – 1(
SOLO
Aircraft Propulsion System
Aircraft Flight Performance
Navigation
Earth Atmosphere
Flight Instruments
Power Generation System
Environmental Control System
Aircraft Aerodynamics
Fuel System
Jet Engine
Vertical/Short Take-Off and Landing (VSTOL(
Engine Control System
Flight Management System
Aircraft Flight Control
Aircraft Flight Control Surfaces
Aircraft Flight Control Examples
Fighter
Aircraft
Avionics
I
I

Table of Content (continue – 2(
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Equations of Motion of an Air Vehicle in Ellipsoidal Earth Atmosphere
Fighter Aircraft Weapon System
References
Safety Procedures
Tracking Systems
Aircraft Sensors
Airborne Radars
Infrared/Optical Systems
Electronic Warfare
Air-to-Ground Missions
Bombs
Air-to-Surface Missiles (ASM( or Air-to-Ground Missiles (AGM(
Fighter Aircraft Weapon Examples
Air-to-Air Missiles (AAM(
Fighter Gun
Avionics IV

Continue from
Part II
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Drag

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Drag

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Drag

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In combat, a pilot is faced with a variety of limiting factors. Some limitations are
constant, such as gravity, drag, and thrust-to-weight ratio. Other limitations vary
with speed and altitude, such as turn radius, turn rate, and the specific energy of
the aircraft. The fighter pilot uses Basic Fighter Maneuvers (BFM( to turn these
limitations into tactical advantages. A faster, heavier aircraft may not be able to
evade a more maneuverable aircraft in a turning battle, but can often choose to
break off the fight and escape by diving or using its thrust to provide a speed
advantage. A lighter, more maneuverable aircraft can not usually choose to
escape, but must use its smaller turning radius at higher speeds to evade the
attacker's guns, and to try to circle around behind the attacker.[13]
BFM are a constant series of trade-offs between these limitations to conserve
the specific energy state of the aircraft. Even if there is no great difference
between the energy states of combating aircraft, there will be as soon as the
attacker accelerates to catch up with the defender. Instead of applying thrust, a
pilot may use gravity to provide a sudden increase in kinetic energy (speed(, by
diving, at a cost in the potential energy that was stored in the form of altitude.
Similarly, by climbing the pilot can use gravity to provide a decrease in speed,
conserving the aircraft's kinetic energy by changing it into altitude. This can help
an attacker to prevent an overshoot, while keeping the energy available in case
one does occur
Energy Management

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13

14

15

16

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19
NavigationSOLO
Flight on Earth Great Circles
The Shortest Flight Path between
two points 1 and 2 on the
Earth is on the Great Circles
(centered at Earth Center(
passing through those points.
1
2
111 ,, λφR
222 ,, λφR
The Great Circle Distance between two points 1 and 2 is ρ.
The average Radius on the Great Circle is a = (R1+R2(/2
θρ ⋅= a
R – radius
ϕ - Latitude
λ - Longitude
kmNmNma 852.11deg/76.60/ =≈ρ

20
Spherical TrigonometrySOLO
Assume three points on a unit radius sphere, defined by the vectors
→→→
CBA 1,1,1
Laws of Cosines for Spherical Triangle Sides
ab
abc
ca
cab
bc
bca
ˆsinˆsin
ˆcosˆcosˆcos
ˆcos
ˆsinˆsin
ˆcosˆcosˆcosˆcos
ˆsinˆsin
ˆcosˆcosˆcos
ˆcos
−
=
−
=
−
=
γ
β
α
Law of Sines for Spherical Triangle Sides.
cba
abccba
cba ˆsinˆsinˆsin
ˆcosˆcosˆcos2ˆcosˆcosˆcos1
ˆsin
ˆsin
ˆsin
ˆsin
ˆsin
ˆsin
222
+−−−
===
γβα
The three great circles passing trough those
three points define a spherical triangle with
CBA ,,
- three spherical triangle
vertices
cba ˆ,ˆˆ -three spherical triangle side angles
γβα ˆ,ˆˆ - three spherical triangle angles defined
by the angles between the tangents
to the great circles at the vertices.

21
SOLO
Assume three points on a unit radius sphere, defined by the vectors
→→→
CBA 1,1,1
Laws of Cosines for Spherical Triangle Sides
The three great circles passing trough those
three points define a spherical triangle with
CBA ,,
- three spherical triangle
vertices
cba ˆ,ˆˆ -three spherical triangle side angles
γβα ˆ,ˆˆ - three spherical triangle angles defined
by the angles between the tangents
to the great circles at the vertices.
βα
βαγ
αγ
αγβ
γβ
γβα
ˆsinˆsin
ˆcosˆcosˆcos
ˆcos
ˆsinˆsin
ˆcosˆcosˆcosˆcos
ˆsinˆsin
ˆcosˆcosˆcos
ˆcos
+
=
+
=
+
=
c
b
a
Spherical Trigonometry

22
Flow of Air Data to Key Avionics Sub-systems
Aircraft Avionics
Navigation
See “Navigation Systems” PDF
for a detailed presentation.

23
NavigationSOLO
1
2
111 ,, λφR
222 ,, λφR
The Great Circle Distance between two points 1 and
2 is ρ.
θρ ⋅= a
R – radius
ϕ - Latitude
λ - Longitude
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )212121 cos90sin90sin90cos90cos
/coscos
λλφφφφ
ρθ
−⋅−⋅−+−⋅−=
=

a
From the Law of Cosines for Spherical Triangles
or
( ) ( )212121 coscoscossinsin/cos λλφφφφρ −⋅⋅+⋅=a
( ){ }212121
1
coscoscossinsincos λλφφφφρ −⋅⋅+⋅⋅= −
a
The Initial Heading Angle ψ0 can be obtained using the
Law of Cosines for Spherical Triangles as follows
( )
( )a
a
/sincos
/cossinsin
cos
1
12
0
ρφ
ρφφ
ψ
⋅
⋅−
=
( )[ ]
( )[ ]2
222
22221
coscoscossinsin1cos
coscoscossinsinsinsin
cos
λλφφφφφ
λλφφφφφφ
ψ
−⋅⋅+⋅−⋅
−⋅⋅+⋅⋅−
= −
The Heading Angle ψ from the Present Position (R,ϕ,λ( to Destination Point (R2,ϕ2,λ2(

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NavigationSOLO
The Distance on the Great Circle between two points
1 and 2 is ρ.
1
2
111 ,, λφR
222 ,, λφR
R – radius
ϕ - Latitude
λ - Longitude
The Time required to travel along the Great Circle between
points 1 and 2 is given by
( ){ }
22
212121
1
coscoscossinsincos
yxHoriz
HorizHoriz
VVV
V
a
V
t
+=
−⋅⋅+⋅⋅==∆ −
λλφφφφ
ρ
( ){ }212121
1
coscoscossinsincos λλφφφφρ −⋅⋅+⋅⋅= −
a

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NavigationSOLO
1
2
111 ,, λφR
222 ,, λφR
If the Aircraft flies with an Heading Error Δψ we want to calculate the Down Range
Error Xd and Cross Range Error Yd, in the Spherical Triangle APB.
R – radius
ϕ - Latitude
λ - Longitude
Using the Law of Cosines for Spherical Triangle APB we have
( ) ( )aaYd /sin
90sin
/sin
sin
ρ
ψ 
=
∆
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) 2/sin/sin
/cos/cos/cos
0ˆcos 21
90ˆ
RR
a
aYaX
aYaXa
P
dd
dd
P +
=
⋅
⋅−
==
= ρ

Using the Law of Sines for Spherical Triangle APB we have
( )
( )





⋅= −
aY
a
aX
d
d
/cos
/cos
cos 1 ρ
( )[ ]ψρ ∆⋅⋅= −
sin/sinsin 1
aaYd

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Navigation
Methods of Navigation
• Dead Reckoning (e.g. Inertial Navigation(
• Externally Dependent (e.g. GPS(
• Database Matching (e.g Celestial Navigation, or
Terrain Referenced Navigation(
See “Navigation Systems.ppt” for
a detailed description

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Navigation
Dead Reckoning Navigation

Inertial rotation sensors classification:
Rotation sensorsRotation sensors
GyroscopicGyroscopic
Rate GyrosRate GyrosFree GyrosFree Gyros
Non-GyroscopicNon-Gyroscopic
Vibration
Sensors
Vibration
Sensors
Rate SensorsRate Sensors Angular
accelerometers
Angular
accelerometers
DTGDTG RGRGRIGRIGRVGRVG General
purpose
General
purpose MHDMHDOptic
Sensors
Optic
Sensors
RLGRLG IOGIOGFOGFOG Silicon
)MEMS(
Silicon
)MEMS(
HRGHRG Tuning
Fork
Tuning
Fork
QuartzQuartz CeramicCeramic
Navigation
28

Rate gyro
DTG – Dynamically Tuned Gyro
Flex Inversion Cardan joint
30

31
Main Components of a DTG
Transverse Cut of a DTG
Rate gyro
DTG – Dynamically Tuned Gyro

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Navigation
Inertial Navigation Systems
(a) Strapdown
There are two way to attach the Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU( to the platform:
1.IMU on Gimbals that keeps it Leveled to Earth Surface (the old type(
2.IMU strap to the Aircraft Body (Strapdown( (the modern way(

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Navigation

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Navigation

35
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Strapdown Algorithm (Vector Notation(
Navigation

36
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Strapdown Algorithm
Navigation

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Navigation
Gyrocompass

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Navigation
Radar Altimeter

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Navigation
Externally Navigation Add Systems
eLORAN
LORAN - C
Global Navigation Satelite System (GNSS(
Distance Measuring Equipment (DME(
VHF Omni Directional Radio-Range (VOR( System
Data Base Matching
Terrain Referenced Navigation (TRN(
Navigation Multi-Sensor Integration
Instrument Landing System (ILS(

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Navigation
Satellites of the
GPS
GLONASS and GALILEO
Systems
Four Satellite Navigation Systems have been designed to give three dimensional
Position, Velocity and Time data almost enywhere in the world with an accuracy
of a few meters
• The Global Positioning System, GPS (USA(
• The Global Navigation Satellite System , GLONASS (Rusia(
• GALILEO (European Union(
• COMPASS (China(
They all uses the Time of Arrival (range determination( Radio Navigation
Systems.

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Navigation

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Navigation

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Navigation
Global Navigation Satelite System (GNSS)
Differential GPS Systems (DGPS)
Differential GPS Systems (DGPS) techniques are based on installing one
or more Reference Receivers at known locations and the measured and
known ranges to the Satellites are broadcast to the other GPS Users in
the vicinity. This removes much of the Ranging Errors caused by
atmospheric conditions (locally) and Satellite Orbits and Clock Errors
(globally).

Global Positioning System (GPS)
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Navigation
A visual example of the GPS constellation in
motion with the Earth rotating. Notice how the
number of satellites in view from a given point
on the Earth's surface, in this example at 45°N,
changes with time
The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space-
based satellite navigation system that provides
location and time information in all weather,
anywhere on or near the Earth, where there is an
unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS
satellites. It is maintained by the United States
government and is freely accessible to anyone with
a GPS receiver.
Ground monitor station used from
1984 to 2007, on display at the Air
Force Space & Missile Museum
A GPS receiver calculates its position by precisely
timing the signals sent by GPS satellites high above
the Earth. Each satellite continually transmits
messages that include:
• the time the message was transmitted
• satellite position at time of message transmission
Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)

Satellite Position
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45
Navigation
GZ
GX
GY
Equatorial
Plane
εY
εZ
εX
Ascending
Node
Satellite
Orbit
Periapsis
Direction
Vernal Equinox
Direction
Ω
ω
i
→
N1
Θ
A sixth element is required to determine the position of the satellite along the orbit at a given time.
1. a semi-major axis – a constant defining the size of the conic orbit.
2. e, eccentricity – a constant defining the shape of the conic orbit.
3. i, inclination – the angle between Ze and the specific angular momentum of the orbit vrh

×=
4. Ω, longitude of the ascending node – the angle, in the Equatorial Plane, between the
unit vector and the point where the satellite crosses trough the Equatorial Plane in a northerly direction
(ascending node) measured counterclockwise where viewed from the northern hemisphere.
5. ω, argument of periapsis – the angle, in the plane of satellite’s orbit, between ascending node and the
periapsis point, measured in the direction of the satellite’s motion.
6. T, time of periapsis passage – the time when the satellite was at the periapsis.

GPS Broadcast Ephemerides
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Navigation

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Navigation
( )
Θ+=










=










= ωuur
ur
y
x
q ellipse
ellipse
Orbit
0
sin
cos
0

( )
2
1
0
cos
sin
0
e
an
ue
u
y
x
q ellipse
ellipse
Orbit
Orbit
−
⋅
⋅










+
−
=










= 


( ) oecoec ttt ⋅+−⋅=Θ ωω
[ ] [ ] [ ]










−−Ω−=










=










0
sin
cos
0
313 ur
ur
iy
x
C
z
y
x
ellipse
ellipse
G
G
ωε
Θ+= ωu

48
SOLO Navigation

Global Positioning System
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Navigation
- x, y, z Satellite Coordinate in Geocentric-Equatorial Coordinate System
( ) ( ) ( )222
ZzYyXx −+−+−=ρ
- X, Y, Z User Coordinate in Geocentric-Equatorial Coordinate System
Squaring both sides gives
The User to Satellite Range is given by
( ) ( ) ( )
ZzYyXxzyxZYX
ZzYyXx
r
⋅⋅−⋅⋅−⋅⋅−+++++=
−+−+−=
222222222
2222
2

ρ
The four unknown are X, Y, Z, Crr.
Satellite position (x,y,z) is calculated from received Satellite Ephemeris Data.
Since we have four unknowns we need data from at least four Satellites.
( ) ZzYyXxCrrrzyxr ⋅⋅−⋅⋅−⋅⋅−=−++− 22222222
ρ
where r = Earth Radius
This is true if (x,y,z) and (X,Y,Z) are measured at the same time. The GPS
Satellites clocks are more accurate then the Receiver clock. Let assume that
Crr is the range-square bias due to time bias between Receiver GPS and
Satellites clocks. Therefore instead of the real Range ρ the Receiver GPS
measures the Pseudo-range ρr..

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Navigation

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Navigation
Using data from four Satellites we obtain
( )
( )
( )
( ) 444444
22
4
2
4
2
4
2
4
333333
22
3
2
3
2
3
2
3
222222
22
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
111111
22
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
222
222
222
222
ZzYyXxCrrrzyx
ZzYyXxCrrrzyx
ZzYyXxCrrrzyx
ZzYyXxCrrrzyx
r
r
r
r
⋅⋅−⋅⋅−⋅⋅−=−++−
⋅⋅−⋅⋅−⋅⋅−=−++−
⋅⋅−⋅⋅−⋅⋅−=−++−
⋅⋅−⋅⋅−⋅⋅−=−++−
ρ
ρ
ρ
ρ
or
( )
( )
( )
( )     
14
1444
22
4
2
4
2
4
2
4
22
3
2
3
2
3
2
3
22
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
22
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
444
333
222
111
1222
1222
1222
1222
x
xx
R
r
r
r
r
PM
rzyx
rzyx
rzyx
rzyx
Crr
Z
Y
X
zyx
zyx
zyx
zyx














−++−
−++−
−++−
−++−
=
























⋅−⋅−⋅−
⋅−⋅−⋅−
⋅−⋅−⋅−
⋅−⋅−⋅−
ρ
ρ
ρ
ρ
14
1
4414 xxx RM
Crr
Z
Y
X
P
−
=












=

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Navigation

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Navigation

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Navigation
GPS Satellite
GPS Control
Station

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Navigation
The key to the system accuracy is the fact that all signal components are
controlled by Atomic Clocks.
• Block II Satellites have four on-board clocks: two rubidium and two cesium
clocks. The long term frequency stability of these clocks reaches a few part in
10-13
and 10-14
over one day.
• Block III will use hydrogen masers with stability of 10-14
to 10-15
over one day.
The Fundamental L-Band Frequency of 10.23 MHz is produced from those Clocks.
Coherently derived from the Fundamental Frequency are three signals
(with in-phase (cos), and quadrature-phase (sin) components):
- L1 = 154 x 10.23 MHz = 1575.42 MHz
- L2 = 120 x 10.23 MHz = 1227.60 MHz
- L3 = 115 x 10.23 MHz = 1176.45 MHz
The in-phase components of L1 signal, is bi-phase modulated by a 50-bps data
stream and a pseudorandom code called C/A-code (Coarse Civilian) consisting of a
1023-chip sequence, that has a period of 1 ms and a chipping rate of 1.023 MHz:
( ) 
( ) ( ) ( )
signalL
code
ompseudorand
AC
ulation
bps
power
carrier
I ttctdPts
−−
+⋅⋅⋅⋅=
1/
mod
50
cos2 θω

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Navigation
The quadrature-phase components of L1, L2 and L3 signals, are bi-phase modulated
by the 50-bps data stream but a different pseudorandom code called P-code
(Precision-code) or Precision Positioning Service (PPS) for US Military use, , that
has a period of 1 week and a chipping rate of 10.23 MHz:
( ) 
( ) ( ) ( )
signalsLLL
code
ompseudorand
P
ulation
bps
power
carrier
Q ttptdPts
−−
+⋅⋅⋅⋅=
3,2,1
mod
50
sin2 θω

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Navigation

GPS Signal
Spectrum
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Navigation

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Navigation
GPS User Segment
(GPS Receiver)

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Navigation
GPS User Segment
(GPS Receiver)

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Navigation
Differential GPS Augmented Systems

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Navigation
Differential GPS Augmented Systems

GNSS Aviation Operational Performance Requirements
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Navigation

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Navigation
LORAN - C
A LORAN receiver measures the
Time Difference of arrival between
pulses from pairs of stations. This
time difference measurement places
the Receiver somewhere along a
Hyperbolic Line of Position (LOP).
The intersection of two or more
Hyperbolic LOPs, provided by two or
more Time Difference measurement,
defines the Receiver’s Position.
Accuracies of 150 to 300 m are
typical.
LOP from Transmitter Stations
(1&2 and 1&3)
LORAN – C (LOng RAnge Navigation) is a Time Difference Of Arrival
(TDOA), Low-Frequency Navigation and Timing System originally
designed for Ship and Aircraft Navigation.

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Navigation
eLORAN
eLORAN receiver employ Time of Arrival
(TOA) position techniques, similar to those used
in Satellite Navigation Systems. They track the
signals of many LORAN Stations at the same
time and use them to make accurate and reliable
Position and Timing measurements. It is now
possible to obtain absolut accuracies of 8 – 20 m
and recover time to 50 ns with new low-cost
receivers in areas served by eLORAN.
The Differential eLORAN
Concept
Enhanced LORAN , or eLORAN, is an
International initiative underway to
upgrade the traditional LORAN – C
System for modern applications. The
infrastructure is being installed in the US,
and a variation of eLORAN is already
operational in northwest Europe.
A Combined GPS/eLORAN
Receiver and Antenna from
Reelektronika

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Navigation
Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)
Aircraft DME Range
Determination System
Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)
Stations for Aircraft Navigation were
developed in the late 1950’s and are still in
world-wide use as primary Navigation Aid.
The DME Ground Station receive a signal
from the User ant transmits it back. The
User’s Receiving Equipment measures the
total round trip time for the
interrogation/replay sequence, which is
then halved and converted into a Slant
Range between the User’s Aircraft and the
DME Station
There are no plans to improve the DME Network, through it is forecast to remain in
service for many years. Over time the system will be relegated to a secondary role as a
backup to GNSS-based navigation,

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Navigation
Angle (Bearing Determination)
Determining Bearing to a
VOR Station
VHF Omni Directional Radio-Range (VOR) System
The VHF Omni Directional Radio-Range (VOR) System is comp[rised of a serie of
Ground-Based Beacons operating in the VHF Band (108 to 118 MHz).
A VOR Station transmits a reference carrier
Frequency Modulated (FM) with:
30 Hz signal from the main antenna.
An Amplitude Modulated (AM) carrier
electrically swept around several smaller
Antennas surrounding the main
Antenna. This rotating pattern
creates a 30 Hz Doppler effect on
the Receiver. The Phase Difference
of the two 30 Hz signals gives the
User’s Azimuth with respect to the North
from the VOR Site. The Bearing measurement
accuracy of a VOR System is typically on the
order of 2 degrees, with a range that
extends from 25 to 130 miles.
Private Pilot Airplane - Navigation – ASA, Movie

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Navigation
TACAN is the Military
Enhancement of
VOR/DME
VHF Omni Directional Radio-Range (VOR) System
TACAN (Tactical Air Navigation) is an enhanced VOR/DME System designed for
Military applications. The VOR component of TACAN, which operates in the UHF
spectrum, make use of two-frequency principle, enabling higher bearing accuracies.
The DME Component of TACAN operates with the
same specifications as civil DME.
The accuracy of the azimuth component is
about ±1 degree, while the accuracy of the DME
position is ± 0.1 nautical miles. For Military
usage a primary drawback is the lack of radio
silence caused by Aircraft DME Transmission.

SOLO
70
Navigation
Data Base Matching

SOLO
71
Navigation
Terrain Referenced Navigation (TRN)

SOLO
72
Navigation
Terrain Referenced Navigation (TRN)

SOLO
73
Navigation

SOLO
74
Aircraft Avionics
Navigation
Instrument Landing System (ILS)

SOLO
75
Navigation
Navigation Multi-Sensor Integration
Navigation Data

76
Aircraft SensorsSOLO
Introduction
Classification of Sensors by the type of energy they use for sensing:
We deal with sensors used for target detection, identification,
acquisition and tracking, seekers for missile guidance.
• Electromagnetic Effect that are distinct by EM frequency:
- Micro-Wave Electro-Optical:
* Visible
* IR
* Laser
- Millimeter Wave Radars
• Acoustic Systems
Classification of Sensors by the source of energy they use for sensing:
• Passive where the source of energy is in the objects that are sensed
Example: Visible, IR, Acoustic Systems
• Semi – Active where the source of energy is actively produced externally
to
the Sensor and sent toward the target that reflected it back to the sensor
Example: Radars, Laser, Acoustic Systems
• Active where the source of energy is actively produced by the Sensor
and sent toward the target that reflected it back to the sensor

77
SOLO
Introduction
Classification of Sensors by the Measurements Type:
• Range and Direction to the Target (Active Sensors)
• Direction to the Target only (Passive and Semi-Active Sensors)
• Imaging of the Object
• Non-Imaging
See “Sensors.ppt” for
a detailed description
Aircraft Sensors

I
0Ex
0Ey
Iz
Northx
Easty
Downz
Bx
By
Bz
Ω
Iy
Ix
tΩ
tΩ
Long
Lat
0Ez
Ex
Ey
Ez
AV

α
β
Target (T)
(object)
Platform
(B)
(sensor)
SOLO
To perform this task a common coordinate system is used.
Example: In a Earth neigh borough the Local Level Local North coordinate system
(Latitude, Longitude, Height above Sea Level) can be used to specify the position
and direction of motion of all objects.
The information is gathered by sensors
that are carried by platforms (B) that can be
static or moving (earth vehicles, aircraft,
missiles, satellites,…) relative to the
predefined coordinate system. It is assumed
that the platforms positions and velocities,
including their errors, are known and can be
used for this task:
SensorDownSensorEastSensorNordSensorDownSensorEastSensorNord
SensorLevelSeaSensorSensorSensorLevelSeaSensorSensor
VVVVVV
HLongLatHLongLat
σσσ
σσσ
,,,,,
,,,,,
The objects (T) positions and velocities are obtained by combining the information of
objects-to-sensors relative position and velocities and their errors to the information
of sensors (B) positions and velocities and their errors.
See “Tracking Systems” PDF
General Problem of a Tracking System in the Earth Environment
Provide information of the position and direction of movement (including estimated
errors) of uncooperative objects, to different located users.
78

ψ θ
φ
B
x
L
x
B
z
L
y
L
z
B
y
TV

P
V

R

Az
El
Bx
SOLO
Assume that the platform with the sensor measure continuously and without error
in the platform coordinates the object (Target – T) and platform positions and velocities .
The relative position vector is defined
by three independent parameters. A possible
choice of those parameters is:
R

( )










−
=




















−








 −
=










=
ElR
ElAzR
ElAzRR
ElEl
ElEl
AzAz
AzAz
Rz
Ry
Rx
R
B
B
B
B
sin
cossin
coscos
0
0
cos0sin
010
sin0cos
100
0cossin
0sincos

R - Range from platform to object
Az - Sensor Azimuth angle relative to platform
El - Sensor Elevation angle relative to platform
Rotation Matrix from LLLN to B (Euler Angles):
[ ] [ ] [ ]










−+
+−
−
==
θφψφψθφψφψθφ
θφψφψθφψφψθφ
θψθψθ
ψθφ
cccssscsscsc
csccssssccss
ssccc
CB
L 321
ψ - azimuth angle θ - pitch angle φ - roll angle
79

SOLO
in the platform coordinates the object (Target – T) and platform (B) positions and velocities .
I
0Ex
0Ey
Iz
Northx
Easty
Downz
Bx
By
Bz
Ω
Iy
Ix
tΩ
tΩ
Long
Lat
0Ez
Ex
Ey
Ez
AV

α
β
Target (T)
(object)
Platform
(B)
(sensor)
The origin of the LLLN coordinate system is located at
the projection of the center of gravity CG of the platform
on the Earth surface, with zDown axis pointed down,
xNorth, yEast plan parallel to the local level, with xNorth
pointed to the local North and yEast pointed to the local East.
The platform is located at:
Latitude = Lat, Longitude = Long, Height = H
Rotation Matrix from E to L
[ ] [ ]
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) =










−










−
−
=−−=
100
0cossin
0sincos
sin0cos
010
cos0sin
2/ 32 LongLong
LongLong
LatLat
LatLat
LongLatC L
E π
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )









−−−
−
−−
=
LatLongLatLongLat
LongLong
LatLongLatLongLat
sinsincoscoscos
0cossin
cossinsincossin
The earth radius is ( ) 26.298/1&10378135.6sin1 6
0
2
0
=⋅=+= emRLateRRpB
The position of the platform in E coordinates is
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )









−
−
−
+=
LongLat
Long
LongLat
HRR BpB
E
B
coscos
sin
cossin

80

( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )









−
−
−
+=










=
TT
T
TT
TpT
zET
yET
xET
E
T
LongLat
Long
LongLat
HR
R
R
R
R
coscos
sin
cossin

I
0Ex
0Ey
Iz
Northx
Easty
Downz
Bx
By
Bz
Ω
Iy
Ix
tΩ
tΩ
Long
Lat
0Ez
Ex
Ey
Ez
AV

α
β
Target (T)
(object)
Platform
(B)
(sensor)
SOLO
The position of the platform (B) in E coordinates is ( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )









−
−
−
+=
LongLat
Long
LongLat
HRR Bp
E
B
coscos
sin
cossin

The position of the target (T) relative to platform (B)
in E coordinates is
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )BTB
L
TL
E
BL
B
E
L
E
RCCRCCR

==
The position of the target (T) in E coordinates is
( ) ( ) ( )EE
B
zET
yET
xET
E
T
RR
R
R
R
R

+=










=
Since the relation to target latitude LatT, longitude LongT and height HT is given by:
we have ( )
( ) ( )
( )[ ]TpTyETT
pTzETyETxETTTpT
zETxETT
HRRLong
RRRRHLateRR
RRLat
+−=
−++=+=
=
−
−
/sin
&sin1
/tan
1
2/12222
0
1
ψ θ
φ
B
x
L
x
B
z
L
y
L
z
B
y
T
V

P
V

R

Az
El
Bx
81

ψ θ
φ
B
x
L
x
B
z
L
y
L
z
B
y
TV

P
V

R

Az
El
Bx
SOLO
in the platform coordinates the object (Target – T) and platform positions and velocities .
Therefore the velocity vector of the object (T)
relative to the platform (B) can be obtained by
direct differentiation of the relative range R

BTIB
B
BT VVR
td
Rd
V



−=×+= ←ω.
or
BIB
BI
T
T VR
td
Rd
td
Rd
V



+×+== ←ω
TV

P
V

( )2
tR

Az
El
B
xB
x
Bx
( )1
tR

( )3tR

82

( )kkx |ˆ
( )kx
( )1|1 ++ kkP
( )1| −kkP
( )1|1ˆ ++ kkx
( )1+kx
( )kkP |
( )kkP |1+
( )kkx |1ˆ +
( )kt ( )1+kt
Real Trajectory
Estimated Trajectory
( )2+kt
( )1|2 ++ kkP
( )1|2ˆ ++ kkx
( )2|2 ++ kkP
( )2|2ˆ ++ kkx
( )3+kt
Measurement Events
Predicted Errors
Updated Errors
SOLO
The platform with the sensors measure at discrete time and with measurement error.
It may happen that no data (no target detection) is obtained for each measurement.
Therefore it is necessary to estimate the
target trajectory parameters and their
errors from the measurements events,
and to predict them between measurements
events.
tk - time of measurements
- sensor measurements( )k
tz
- parameters of the real trajectory at time t.( )tx
- predicted parameters of the trajectory at time t.( )tx

- predicted parameters errors at time t (tk < t < tk+1).( )kttP /
- updated parameters errors at measurement time tk.( )kk
ttP /
( )txz ,
Filter
(Estimator/Predictor)
( )k
txz ,
kt
( )tx

( )kttP /
T
V

PV

( )2
tR

Az
El
B
x
Bx
Bx
( )1
tR

( )3tR

1
1
1
83

SOLO
The problem is more complicated when they are Multiple Targets. In this case we must
determinate which measurement is associated to which target. This is done before
filtering.
TV

P
V

( )2
tR

Az
El
Bx
Bx
Bx
( )1tR

( )3
tR

Bx
Bx
1
2
3
32
1
Bx
Bx
Bx
1
3
2
1
( )ktxz ,11
( )k
txz ,22
( )k
txz ,33
( )kk
ttP /11 −
( )kk
ttP /12 −
( )kk ttP /13 −
( )k
tx3

( )k
tx2

( )k
tx1

( )kk
ttP /1
( )kk
ttP /2
( )kk ttP /3
Filter
Target # 1
( )tx1

( )k
ttP /1
Filter
Target # N
( )txN

( )kN
ttP /
( )txz , ( )ktxz ,
k
t
Data
Association
( )tz1
( )tzN
Return to Table of Content
84

85
General ProblemSOLO
If more Sensors are involved using Sensor Data Fusion we can improve.
In this case we have a Multi-Sensor Multi-Target situation
To perform this task we must perform Alignment of the Sensors Data
in Time (synchronization) and in Space (example GPS that provides accurate time & position)
Run This

86
General ProblemSOLO
Functional Diagram of a Tracking System
A Tracking System performs the following functions:
• Sensors Data Processing and Measurement
Formation that provides Targets Data
• Observation-to-Track Association
that relates Target Detected Data
to Existing Track Files.
• Track Maintenance (Initialization,
Confirmation and deletion) of the
Targets Detected by the Sensors.
• Filtering and Prediction , for each Track processes the Data Associated to the Track,
Filter the Target State (Position, and may be Velocity and Acceleration) from Noise,
and Predict the Target State and Errors (Covariance Matrix) at the next
Sensors Measurement.
• Gating Computations that, using the Predicted Target State, provides the Gating to
enabling distinguishing between the Measurement from the Target of the specific
Track File to other Targets Detected by the Sensors.

87
Flow of Air Data to Key Avionics Sub-systems
Aircraft Avionics
Airborne Radars
See “Airborne Radars” PDF

SOLO Airborne Radars
Second Generation Fighters Radars
Airborne Radars Ranging in Boresight Only used
for Gunsight Computation , for Semi Active
Missiles, and for A/G Weapon Release
Computations. They where equipped also with
Rear Warning Radar (RWR) Systems. Cutaway view of the Mirage III
Thomson CSF Cyrano
dual mode Air / Ground r Radar
88

Third Generation Fighters Radars
A/A and A/G Modes.
A/A Mode:
Support Lead Computing Gunsight, in Gun Mode.
Gimbaled Antenna capable to Track one Air Target
and provide Illumination for Semi-Active
A/A Missiles.
Provide data for Pilot Steering Commands for A/A Missiles, and data for
computation of A/A Missiles Launch Envelopes.
A/G Mode
Provide data for Dumb Bomb Release
Provide data for HARM Missiles
Provide Data for TV Missiles
F4 Phantom Westinghouse AN/APQ120 Radar
89

92
SOLO
Example: Airborne Electronic Scan Antenna
SENSORS

Missions
• Air-to-Air Missions
Air combat makes extensive use of multi-mode radar capabilities
Performed by a single pilot that has to fly the aircraft in the same time, or by a
a second pilot (Navigator – in a two seats fighter aircraft). In all cases the same
Radar is installed in a single seat as in a two seats fighter aircraft. For this reason
the Radar System is operated with minimum pilot interference (semi-automatic modes)
• Velocity Search Mode
This is the longest range search mode in most multi-mode airborne radars.
It is look-down and High-PRF. It looks to targets which are flowing toward
the aircraft radar. It is primarily a Doppler mode and range is often not measured.
Search is in both azimuth and elevation.
• Range-while-search Mode
This is a medium range look-down search mode to find target range as well as
Doppler. It can be High-PRF and use Modulated Pulse Doppler wave, or
Medium PRF.
93

Spick M., “The Great Book of Modern Warplanes”, Salamander, 2003
F-18 AN/APG-65
Scan Modes
94

A Downlook Search
in air-to-air mode in
Medium PRF, of F-16
AN/APG-66 radar.
F-16 Falcon
95

Four-bar scan
Two -bar scan
One -bar scan
20x20deg air-combat scan
10x40deg
air-combat
scan
F-16 AN/APG-66
Scan Modes
Spick M., “The Great Book of
Modern Warplanes”, Salamander,
2003
96

Missions (continue – 1)
• Air-to-Air Missions (continue – 1)
• Track-while-scan (TWS)
This Medium or High-PRF mode is similar to range-while-search, except that
on a limited number of targets track-files are initiated and maintained in the
Radar processor. These files are used to identify threats, control weapons, and
to initiate single-target tracks.
• Track
This is a mode when a single target is tracked (STT) or a high priority target
(HPT) is tracked at a higher rate, while other targets are tracked-while-scan.
• Range for Aircraft Gun
This is a short range single target track (STT). In this mode the radar controls
cockpit display which tells the pilot how to point the aircraft so that a gun is
pointed to the predicted bullet impact points with the target.
97

SOLO Lead Computing Gunsight
In the Lead Mode, the Pilot maneuvers the Aircraft to keep the Pipper (Optical Sight)
On the Target for at least half a second and then he pushes the Gun Trigger to fire a
Volley of Projectiles. The Gunsight computes the Lead of Aircraft Boresight (Gun
Direction) such that some of the Volley Projectiles will Hit the Target.
98

• Air-to-Surface Missions
The following Modes are implemented:
• Terrain Avoidance (TA)
• Real Beam Map (RBM)
Used at low altitude above ground flight situations.
• Beacon Direction Tracking (BCN)
Used for navigation purposes, when the radar receives the return from
known Beacons to determine aircraft position relative to Beacons.
99

• Air-to-Surface Missions (continue – 1)
• Air-to-Ground Ranging (AGR)
Used to provide the range to a designed ground target to the
Weapon Delivery System, in order to compute the best automatic
release time.
100

Air-to-Surface Missions (continue – 2)
Stimson, G.W., “Introduction to Airborne Radar”, 1st
Ed., Hughes Aircraft Company,
2nd
ed., Scitech Publishing, 1998
101

SOLO
• Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)
Used to provide Radar Imaging of areas on the ground.
Airborne Radars State of the art high
resolution imaging
Synthetic Aperture
Radars can produce
spot maps of areas
hundreds of metres to
kilometres in size at
tens of NMI of range,
with resolutions at
this time as fine as
one foot. In the
simplest of terms, you
can use such radars
to produce
geometrically
accurate surface
maps in which the
smallest feature size
is a foot. Therefore
buildings, roads,
structures, vehicles,
parked aircraft, ships,
fences, radio masts,
radar antennas and
any other features of
interest can be
detected, identified
and accurately
located in relation to
the surrounding
terrain.
102

• Ground Moving Target Indicator (GMTI)
Used to detect moving vehicles on the ground.
State of the art Ground Moving Target Indicator radars can detect slowly moving surface vehicles,
taxiing aircraft, and hovering helicopters. In many instances, these radars can also exploit fine
Doppler modulations in the radar return to identify the vehicle class or type, and even rotating
radar antennas.
A radar which combines GMTI and SAR technologies can accurately detect, locate and identify
virtually any surface target, from a standoff range at a very shallow slant angle, under any
weather conditions. Combined with GPS guided bombs, this is a revolutionary capability, because
it extends the existing around the clock bombing capability to an all weather standoff bombing
capability. The established thermal imaging/laser guided bombing technology requires that direct
line of sight exists to the target, that the cloudbase is above the bombing aircraft, and that the
humidity and precipitation situation is not severe. Many bombing sorties were aborted during the
Gulf War as these conditions were not satisfied. Moreover getting close enough to the target to
use a thermal imager exposes the aircraft to air defences.
103

http://www.secretprojects.co.uk/ebooks/APG-68.pdf
APG-68, F-16’s Falcon Radar, in Doppler Beam Sharpening Mode
104

Doppler Beam Sharpening
Ocean City, Maryland
APG -68 F-16’s Radar
105

Airborne Radar Modes
Single
Target
Track
(STT)
Range
While
Scan
(RWS)
Air
Combat
Mode
(ACM)
High
Priority
Track
(HPT)
Air-to-Air Air-to-Surface
Boresight
(BST)
Track
While
Scan
(RWS)
Sea
Surface
Search
(SEA)
Real
Beam
Map
(RBM)
Doppler
Beam
Sharpening
(DBSM)
Ground
Target
Moving
Indication
(GMTI)
Synthetic
Aperture
Radar
(SAR)
Terrain
Avoidance
(TA)
Beacon
(BCN)
Air-to-Ground
Ranging
(AGR)
106

Missions
• Air-to-Air Missions
Waveform Type Typical Function Remarks
Velocity Search (VS) HPRF Pulsed Doppler Long range detection High duty factor, Fine Doppler
resolution; target clutter-free region;
best for head-on geometries
Range-While-Search (RWS) HPRF + LFM Pulsed Doppler Long range detection with
coarse range estimate
Linear FM over dwell
Range Gated HPRF
(RGHPRF)
HPRF Pulsed Doppler Long range detection Provides ambiguous range
measurement
MPRF Search MPRF Pulsed Doppler All-aspect detection Improved detection for tail-chase;
good range and Doppler resolution
Single Target Track (STT) MPRF/ HPRF Pulsed Doppler Fire control MPRF and HPRF may be
interleaved
Track-While-Scan (TWS) MPRF Pulsed Doppler Multiple target tracking Track updated provided during
normal search revisits
Multiple Target Track (MTT) MPRF/ HPRF Pulsed Doppler Multiple target tracking Track updated scheduled
independent of search scan
(achievable through ESA)
Low PRF Doppler Search LPRF Pulsed Doppler Airborne target detection Used by some radars; much less
effective than MPRF and HPRF
modes
Low PRF Doppler Track LPRF Pulsed Doppler Airborne target tracking Used by some radars; much less
effective than MPRF and HPRF
modes
Air-to-Air Ranging LPRF Noncoherent Short range weapon No clutter at ranges closer than
target
Radar Mode
107

Missions
• Air-to-Ground Missions
Waveform Type Typical Function Remarks
Terrain Avoidance LPRF Non-coherent Covert Navigation Flight path selected to fly between
hills and mountains
Terrain Following LPRF Non-coherent Covert Navigation Constant Low altitude maintained
Air-to-Ground Ranging LPRF Non-coherent Bomb Delivery Determine range to target area
Ground Map LPRF Non-coherent Navigation Azimuth resolution limitted by real
beam
Ground Beam sharpening
(DBS)
LPRF Coherent Navigation Improved azimuth resolution
Synthetic Aperture (SAR)
- Stip Map
LPRF Coherent Intelligence, Surveillance,
Reconnaissance
Moderate resolution imagery of
stationary targets and clutter
Synthetic Aperture (SAR)
- Spotlight
LPRF Coherent Intelligence, Surveillance,
Reconnaissance
High resolution imagery of
stationary targets and clutter
Ground Moving Target
Indicator (GMTI)
LPRF Coherent Detection of Moving
Vehicles
Must detect small differences in
velocity between targets and clutter
Maritime Target Track
(MTT)
LPRF Coherent Detection of Sea Ships Must detect small differences in
velocity between ships and sea
Radar Mode
108

SOLO
Airborne Radars
AN/APG Series
AN/APG-1, S band interception radar for P-61
AN/APG-2, S band interception radar for P-61B
AN/APG-3, General Electric tail gun aiming radar for B-29 and B-36B
AN/APG-4, L band low altitude torpedo release / aiming radar for TBM, with nicknamed Sniffer.
AN/APG-5, S band ranging / gun aiming radar for B-17, B-24 and F-86A
AN/APG-6, L band low altitude bombing radar nickednamed Super Sniffer. Improved AN/APG-4.
AN/APG-7, Bombing radar to control glide bombs
AN/APG-8, S band turret gun aiming radar for B-29B
AN/APG-9, L band low altitude bombing radar. Improved AN/APG-6
AN/APG-11, L band bombing radar
AN/APG-13, General Electric 75 mm nose gun aiming radar for B-25H.
AN/APG-14, S band gun aiming radar for B-29
AN/APG-15, S band tail gun aiming radar for B-29B and PB4Y Privateer
AN/APG-16, improved AN/APG-2 gun aiming radar for B-32.
AN/APG-17, improved AN/APG-4 L band low altitude torpedo release / aiming radar and bombing radar
AN/APG-18, X band gun aiming radar by Glenn L. Martin Company for turret guns,
improved AN/APG-5
AN/APG-19, X band gun aiming radar by Glenn L. Martin Company, improved AN/APG-8
and AN/APG-18.
AN/APG-21, ranging radar for ground attack
AN/APG-22, X band gun aiming radar by Raytheon
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_radars#AN.2FAPY_Series
109

AN/APG Series (continuous 1)
AN/APG-23, Fire control radar for B-36A
AN/APG-24, Fire control radar for B-36B
AN/APG-25, X band gun aiming radar for F-100
AN/APG-26, Westinghouse Electric (1886) fire control radar for F3D Skyknight
AN/APG-27, Gun aiming radar for tail guns of Convair XB-46 and Martin XB-48
AN/APG-28, Interception radar for F-82 Twin Mustang
AN/APG-30, Sperry Corporation X band fire control radar for B-45, B-47, F-86E/F, F-100,
F-84E, F-8A, F-4E & others
AN/APG-31, Raytheon gun aiming radar for B-57
AN/APG-32, General Electric X band tail gun aiming radar for B-36D/F and B-47E
AN/APG-33, Hughes Aircraft X band fire control radar for F-89A, F-94A/B
AN/APG-34, gun aiming radar for F-104C
AN/APG-35, fire control radar for F3D Skyknight
AN/APG-36, fire control radar for F2H-2N and F-86D
AN/APG-37, Hughes Aircraft fire control radar for F2H-4 and F-86D/K/L
AN/APG-39, gun aiming radar for B-47E
AN/APG-40, Hughes Aircraft fire control radar for F-89D, F-94C
AN/APG-41, General Electric tail gun aiming radar for B-36H
AN/APG-43, Raytheon continuous wave interception radar
AN/APG-45, General Electric miniaturized AN/APG-30 for maritime patrol aircraft
AN/APG-46, original fire control radar of A-6A.
AN/APG-50, F-4 Phantom II fire control radar
110

AN/APG Series (continuous 2)
AN/APG-51, Hughes Aircraft interception radar for F3H-2, F3D Skyknight
AN/APG-53, Stewart-Warner fire control radar for A-4 Skyhawk
AN/APG-55, Westinghouse Electric (1886) pulse Doppler interception radar
AN/APG-56, improved AN/APG-30 for F-86
AN/APG-57, Gould Electronics fire control radar
AN/APG-59, Westinghouse Electric (1886) pulse-Doppler radar for F-4J, part of AN/AWG-10
AN/APG-60, Doppler radar that is part of AN/AWG-11 for F-4K
AN/APG-61, fire control radar for F-4M, part of AN/AWG-12
AN/APG-63 and AN/APG-70, for the F-15 Eagle
AN/APG-64, development of AN/APG-63, never went into production
AN/APG-65 and AN/APG-73, for the F/A-18 Hornet
AN/APG-66 and [AN/APG-68], for the F-16 Falcon
AN/APG-67 General Electric X band multimode pulse-Doppler radar for
F-20 Tigershark and AIDC F-CK-1 Ching-kuo
AN/APG-69, improved AN/APQ-159 fire control radar by Emerson Electric Company for
Northrop F-5 upgrade
AN/APG-71, for the F-14D Tomcat
AN/APG-74, Norden Systems pod-mounted airborne radar
AN/APG-76, Norden Systems multimode Ku band pulse-Doppler radar for F-4 Phantom II upgrade
AN/APG-77, for the F-22 Raptor
AN/APG-78 millimetre wave Long Bow fire control radar for AH-64D Longbow Apache
AN/APG-79, for the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet
AN/APG-80, for the F-16E/F Block 60 Desert Falcon
AN/APG-81, for the F-35 Lightning II
111

SOLO
Return to
Table of Content
113

SOLO Airborne Radars F-16 Display
114

http://www.ausairpower.net/TE-Fighter-Cockpits.html
115

http://www.ausairpower.net/TE-Fighter-Cockpits.html
The identical Master Monitor Display and Multi-Function Display are completely
Interchangeable as regards the information they show. At the left is a typical Radar Display.
At the right is a typical Weapon-delivery Management Display.
F/A-18 Displays
116

117

F/A-18E/F APG-79 AESA RADAR
118

AN/APG-79 is another AESA radar which was developed in US by Raytheon for
F/A-18E/F starting from 2000. The first fly tests were started in 2003. The first
serial radar was transferred to Boeing for installation on F/A-18E/F board only
in Jan. 2005. The initial operational readiness was achieved in 2007. EA-18G
'growler' EW aircraft came with this radar too. This radar is including IDECM
inbuilt EW system. Its mass is about 300 kg.
http://igorrgroup.blogspot.co.il/2009/08/aesa-radars-for-fighters-brief-review.html
119

Su-34 Pilot, Co-Pilot Side-by-Side Cockpit
121

122Comparison of Fighters Radar Ranges
Airborne Radars

And their maximal effective detection range to the fighters in
the world should be:
* F-15C & Su-27 (RCS = 10~15m2
): 450 ~ 600 km
* Tornado (RCS = 8 m2
): 420 ~ 500 km
* MIG-29 (RCS = 5 m2
): 370 ~ 450 km
* F/A-18C (RCS = 3 m2
)): 330 ~ 395 km
* F-16C (RCS = 1.2 m2
)): 260 ~ 310 km
* JAS39 (RCS = 0.5 m2
)): 210 ~ 250 km
* Su-47 (RCS = 0.3 m2
)): 185 ~ 220 km
* Rafale (RCS = 0.1~0.2 m2
)): 140 ~ 200 km
* F-18E (RCS = 0.1 m2
)): 140 ~ 170 km
* MIG-42 (RCS = 0.1 m2
)): 140 ~ 170 km
* EF2K (RCS = 0.05~0.1 m2
)): 120 ~ 170 km
* F-35A (RCS = 0.0015 m2
)): 50 ~ 60 km
* F/A-22 (RCS < or = 0.0002~0.0005 m2
)): < or = 30 ~ 45 km
Source:
http://www.defence.pk/forums/air-warfare/20908-rcs-different-fighters.html#ixzz2Dy
RCS OF Different Fighters
Airborne RadarsSOLO
123

APG-67 V4 (T-50)
For RCS 0.0001 m2 class target: 3~4 km+
APG-68 V5 (F-16 C/D)
RDY (M2000-5)
APG-68 V9 (F-16 C/D/I and RDY-2
iM2000-5MK2 and -9)
PS-05A (JAS-39 A/B/C/D)
APG-73 (F/A-18E/F, Block1)
For RCS 10.0 m2 class target:100~114km+dfC
RBE-2 PESA (Rafale F1/F2/F3)
APG-63 (F-15C)
For RCS 0.0001 m2 class target: 9 km+
For RCS 10.0 m2 class target: 160 km+t
Detection Ranges of Different Fighters -Radars
124

Detection Ranges of Different Fighters -Radars
NOAR AESA (JAS-39 C/D PLUS, post-2013)
APG-80 AESA (F-16E)
RBE-2 AESA (Rafale F4, post-2012)
CAPTOR (EF-2000 Tranch 1 and 2)
APG-79 AESA (F/A-18E/F and EA-18G,
Block 2 and 3)
APG-81 AESA (F-35A/B/C)
APG-63 V2/V3/V4 AESA (F-15C/E/SG)
CAESAR AESA (EF-2000 Tranch3, post-2015
with 1,500 T/Rs)
APG-77 AESA (F-22A)
For RCS 10.0 m2 class target: 355 km+125

126
Infrared/Optical Systems See “E-O and IR Systems Pyloads” PDF

127
Target Identification System, Electro-Optical (TISEO)
F-4 (V) Phantom
E-O and IR Systems Payloads
F-14. Close-up of the TVSU camera. This sensor is
equivalent to the Target Identification System
Electro-Optic (TISEO) sensor on the F-4E
Phantom. The fairing under the camera is the
ARN-100 antenna. The red item is the forward anti-
collision light
Northrop AN/AXX-1 Television Camera System (TCS). TCS represents the TISEO/TCS family of stabilised TV telescopes, used by the
USAF and USN on air defence and air superiority fighters. TCS provides sharp close-up images of hostile aircraft outside of visual range.
Typical identification ranges quoted are. DC-10 at 85 miles, F-111 at 40 miles, C-130 at 35 miles and F-5 at 10 miles. TCS could be fitted
to the F-18, though currently only the F-14A is equipped. Below installation on F-14D with IRST (Northrop images).
Northrop AN/AXX-1 Television Camera System (TCS). TCS represents the TISEO/TCS family of stabilised TV telescopes, used by the
USAF and USN on air defence and air superiority fighters. TCS provides sharp close-up images of hostile aircraft outside of visual range.
Typical identification ranges quoted are. DC-10 at 85 miles, F-111 at 40 miles, C-130 at 35 miles and F-5 at 10 miles. TCS could be fitted
to the F-18, though currently only the F-14A is equipped. Below installation on F-14D with IRST (Northrop images).

128
MiG-29 nose showing radome and IRST
IRST
Su-35S demonstrator with exposed
Irbis-E phased array and 90 degree off
boresight steerable OLS-35 IRST turret.
The now well established trend in
Russian sensors for BVR combat is
increasing range performance and
countermeasures resistance. The 20
kiloWatt peak power N035 Irbis E radar
is the most powerful in its class.
(KnAAPO)
Forward Looking Infrared(FLIR) -
Infrared Search and Track System (IRST)
IRST sensor on the Su-27
Su-27: The OLS-27 Infrared Search and Track (IRST)

129
Su-35S Electro-Optical System turret
(© 2009 Vitaliy V. Kuzmin)
Thales Damocles electro-optical
targeting pod (Wikipedia image).
The UOMZ Sapsan E Electro-Optical Targeting System
pod is likely to be offered as an alternative to the licenced
French Thales Damocles targeting pod (© 2009 Vitaliy V.
Kuzmin
The UOMZ Sapsan E Electro-Optical Targeting System
pod is likely to be offered as an alternative to the licenced
French Thales Damocles targeting pod (© 2009 Vitaliy V.
Kuzmin

SOLO
RAFAEL LITENING
Multi-Sensor, Multi-Mission Targeting & Navigation Pod
130

SOLO
RAFAEL RECCELITE
Real-Time Tactical Reconnaissance System
131

SOLO
132

SOLO
LANTIRN (Low Altitude Navigation and Targeting Infrared for Night)
Primary function:
Low altitude navigation and targeting
infrared for night flying
Contractor: Lockheed Martin, Inc.
Length:
AN/AAQ-13
Navigation pod
AN/AAQ-14
targeting pod
Length:
78.2 inches (1.99
meters)
98.5 inches (2.51
meters)
Diameter:
12 inches (.31
meters)
15 inches (.38
meters)
Weight:
470 pounds (211.5
kilograms)
524 pounds (235.8
kilograms)
Sensors:
Infrared and
terrain following
radar
Infrared
laser designator and
ranging
Unit Cost:
Navigation pod,
$1.38 million
targeting pod, $3.2
million
Aircraft: F-15E, F-16C/D, F-14
Introduction Date: March 1987
133

SOLO
Sniper XR Specifications
Length: 239 cm
Diameter: 300 mm
Total weight:
440 lb (181
kg)
Operational altitude: +40,000
Sensor:
640x480
FPA
Daylight sensor: CCDTV
Wide Field of view: 4x4
Narrow field of view: 1x1
Field of regard: +35 / -155
Roll: continuous
Laser:
Diode
pumped
laser
designator
To meet the requirements to have a Sniper pod of
several components. The most important part is a
high-resolution FLIRSensor, which in the mid-
infrared spectrum (engl. mid infrared) Works and
CCDBased work. This sensor allows the detection of
enemy targets at night or under adverse conditions.
The range is located around the three-to five-fold
over that of a LANTIRN-Pods of the first
generation. For use in daylight and a CCD-TV
camera can be used. Both sensors are fully
stabilized and equipped with softwareAlgorithms for
digital processing of images. A Datalink to transfer
the acquired images to allied forces as well as a data
storage can always be upgraded. For tracking and
marking of targets serve two separate laser systems.
Both offer a so-called (engl.) Eye-safe Mode to
prevent eye damage in densely populated areas or in
training. The air cell causes less drag than previous
models and has limited Stealth Features.
LOCKHEED Sniper XR (Pantera) Targeting Pod
134

SOLO
NORTHROP AN/AAQ-37
Electro Optical Distributed Aperture System (DAS)
AN/AAQ-37 Electro Optical Distributed Aperture System that equips the F-35 Lightening 2.
The suit of six electro-optical sensors that comprise the system will enhance the F-35's
survivability and operational effectiveness by warning the pilot of incoming aircraft and missile
threats, providing day/night vision and supporting the navigation function of the F-35's forward-
looking infrared sensor.
The DAS provides:
* Missile detection and tracking
* Launch point detection
* Situational awareness IRST & cueing
* Weapons support
* Day/night navigation
At the designated AN/AAQ-37, also known as DAS (Distributed
Aperture System), is a infrarotgestütztes Sensor system. It consists of
six separate IR cameras, which are arranged on the airframe that the
entire sky can be monitored[29]
. It is primarily a Raketenwarngerät
conceived, but also has other functions. How can firing SAM- And
FlakPositions are detected automatically and available on-board
weapons (JDAM, for example) should fight[29]
While appropriate
countermeasures (Flares, Chaff and ECM) Are well-spent. Also from
any direction approaching bombers can be captured and
subsequently with Fire and ForgetWeapons (to be attacked like AIM-
9X or AIM-120) without the F-35 put through maneuvers in firing
position must During a Air melee identified with a number of parties
own and enemy aircraft, and is pursuing the AAQ-37, all planes, so
that the pilot even with similar looking machines can always
distinguish between friend and foe
During night missions, the system serves as a
substitute for conventional Night Vision Goggles. In
combination with the HMDS helmet may use the pilot
in any direction on a night vision image quality, with
the sharpness in some of the human Eye equal. This
is a significant advance over the usual, on the helmet-
mounted night vision devices, since they can cover, by
their construction and the cockpit pulpit only a
relatively small field of view. Combined with the
onboard computer also vehicles on the ground can be
safely pursued
135
Key attribute of the DAS are:
Dual-Band MWIR (3-5 μm) and LWIR (8-10 μm) using a
640 – 512 FPA. Each measures ~ 7x5x4 in, weighs ~ 9 lb
And consumes less than 20 W. Sensor are devices with Megapixel
Capability (1000x1000).

SOLO
NORTHROP AN/AAQ-37
Electro Optical Distributed Aperture System (DAS)
AN/AAQ-37 Electro Optical Distributed Aperture System that equips the F-35 Lightening 2.
136
F35 EO Sensor Vertical Coverage
and EOTS Installation
F35 Horizontal Coverage
Using DAS Sensors

SOLO
Electronic Warfare (EW)
137Typical Batelfield Scenario

SOLO
138Radio-Frequency Spectrum

SOLO
139Electronic Warfare Elements

SOLO
140
Functional Layout of the Radar
Warning Receiver (RWR)
Defensive Aids Subsystems (DASS)
• Radar Warning Receiver (RWR)
• Missile Warning Receiver
• Laser Warning Receiver
• Countermeasure Dispensers (CMD) – Chaff or Flares
• Towed Decoys

SOLO
141
Typical Laser Warning System
(SAAB Avitron)
Example of Flare Dispensing
Example of Towed Decoy

SOLO
142
AN/ALQ-214 Concept of Operation

SOLO
143
Simplified Overview of F/A 18E/F Countermeasures Suite

SOLO
144
Fighter Aircraft Weapon System
The Weapons System of a Fighter has the following tasks:
- Keep Inventory Status of all Weapons
- Provide Safety to Personal (Ground, Pilots) during all Life Phases of Operation
(on Ground and in Flight)
- Help the Pilot to Activate the Weapons to perform their missions.
Attack and Defense Missions:
- Air-to-Ground Attack
- Air-to-Air Attack
-- Defense against incoming treats
The type of Weapons on a Fighter :
- Guns (Air-to-Air/ Air-to-Ground)
- Missiles (Air-to-Air/ Air-to-Ground)
-Bombs (Air-to-Ground)
- Dispensers (Chaff, Flares)
- ECCM Pods

Continue to
Part IV
SOLO
145

References
SOLO
146
PHAK Chapter 1 - 17
http://www.gov/library/manuals/aviation/pilot_handbook/media/
George M. Siouris, “Aerospace Avionics Systems, A Modern Synthesis”,
Academic Press, Inc., 1993
R.P.G. Collinson, “Introduction to Avionics”, Chapman & Hall, Inc., 1996, 1997, 1998
Ian Moir, Allan Seabridge, “Aircraft Systems, Mechanical, Electrical and Avionics
Subsystem Integration”, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., 3th Ed., 2008
Ian Moir, Allan Seabridge, “Military Avionics Systems”, John Wiley & Sons, LTD.,
2006

References (continue – 1)
SOLO
147
S. Hermelin, “Air Vehicle in Spherical Earth Atmosphere”
S. Hermelin, “Airborne Radar”, Part1, Part2, Example1, Example2
S. Hermelin, “Tracking Systems”
S. Hermelin, “Navigation Systems”
S. Hermelin, “Earth Atmosphere”
S. Hermelin, “Earth Gravitation”
S. Hermelin, “Aircraft Flight Instruments”
S. Hermelin, “Computing Gunsight, HUD and HMS”
S. Hermelin, “Aircraft Flight Performance”
S. Hermelin, “Sensors Systems: Surveillance, Ground Mapping, Target Tracking”
S. Hermelin, “Air-to-Air Combat”

References (continue – 2)
SOLO
148
S. Hermelin, “Spherical Trigonometry”
S. Hermelin, “Modern Aircraft Cutaway”

149
SOLO
Technion
Israeli Institute of Technology
1964 – 1968 BSc EE
1968 – 1971 MSc EE
Israeli Air Force
1970 – 1974
RAFAEL
Israeli Armament Development Authority
1974 – 2013
Stanford University
1983 – 1986 PhD AA

150
SOUND WAVESSOLO
Disturbances propagate by molecular collision, at the sped of sound a,
along a spherical surface centered at the disturbances source position.
The source of disturbances moves with the velocity V.
-when the source moves at subsonic velocity V < a, it will stay inside the
family of spherical sound waves.
-when the source moves at supersonic velocity V > a, it will stay outside the
family of spherical sound waves. These wave fronts form a disturbance
envelope given by two lines tangent to the family of spherical sound waves.
Those lines are called Mach waves, and form an angle μ with the disturbance
source velocity:
a
V
M
M
=





= −
&
1
sin 1
µ

151
SOUND WAVESSOLO
Sound Wave Definition:
∆ p
p
p p
p1
2 1
1
1=
−
<<
ρ ρ ρ2 1
2 1
2 1
= +
= +
= +
∆
∆
∆
p p p
h h h
For weak shocks
u
p
1
2
=
∆
∆ρ
1
1
11
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
2
1
1
uuuuuu
ρ
ρ
ρ
ρρρ
ρ
ρ
ρ ∆
−≅
∆
+
=
∆+
==(C.M.)
( ) ( ) ppuuupuupu ∆++




 ∆
−=+=+ 11
1
11122111
2
11
ρ
ρ
ρρρ(C.L.M.)
Since the changes within the sound wave are small, the flow gradients are small.
Therefore the dissipative effects of friction and thermal conduction are negligible
and since no heat is added the sound wave is isotropic. Since
au =1
s
p
a 





∂
∂
=
ρ
2
valid for all gases

152
SPEED OF SOUND AND MACH NUMBERSOLO
Speed of Sound is given by
0=






∂
∂
=
ds
p
a
ρ
RT
p
C
C
T
dT
R
C
p
T
dT
R
C
d
dp
d
R
T
dT
Cds
p
dp
R
T
dT
Cds
v
p
v
p
ds
v
p
γ
ρ
ρ
ρ
ρ
ρ
===





⇒







=−=
=−=
=00
0
but for an ideal, calorically perfect gas
ρ
γγ
ρ p
RTa
TChPerfectyCaloricall
RTpIdeal
p
==






=
=
The Mach Number is defined as
RT
u
a
u
M
γ
==
∆
1
2
1
1
111
−−






=





=





=
γ
γ
γ
γ
γ
ρ
ρ
a
a
T
T
p
p
The Isentropic Chain:
a
ad
T
Tdd
p
pd
sd
1
2
1
0
−
=
−
==→=
γ
γ
γ
γ
ρ
ρ
γ

153
NORMAL SHOCK WAVESSOLO
Normal Shock Wave ( Adiabatic), Perfect Gas
 
G Q= =0 0,
Mach Number Relations (1)
( )
( )
( )
  ( )
12
2
2
2
1
2
1
2
2
22
2
2
1
22
1
2
2
2
2
22
1
1
2
1
12
22
2
11
1
2
2
221
2
11
2211
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
*
12
1
2
1
12
1
1
4..
...
..
uu
u
a
u
a
uaa
uaa
au
h
a
u
h
a
EC
uu
u
p
u
p
pupuMLC
uuMC
p
a
−=−

















−
−
+
=
−
−
+
=
→
−
+
=+
−
=+
−
→−=−→



+=+
=
∗
∗
=
γγ
γγ
γγ
γ
γ
γγ
ρρρρ
ρρ ρ
γ
Field Equations:
122
2
2
1
1
2
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
uuu
u
a
u
u
a
−=
−
+
+
−
−
−
+ ∗∗
γ
γ
γ
γ
γ
γ
γ
γ
u u a1 2
2
= ∗
u
a
u
a
M M1 2
1 21 1∗ ∗
∗ ∗
= → =
Prandtl’s Relation
u
p
ρ
T
e
u
p
ρ
T
e
τ 11
q
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
1 2
( )
γ
γ
γ
γ
γ
γ
γ
γ
γ
γ
2
1
2
1
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
21
2
1212
2
21
12 +
=
−
−=
+
→−=−
−
+
−+ ∗
∗
uu
a
uuuua
uu
uu
Ludwig Prandtl
(1875-1953)

154
 
G Q= =0 0,
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )[ ]
( )( ) ( )
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
2
2
2
2
1
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
2
1
1
2
1 1
2
1
1
1 2
1
2 1 2
1 1 1 1 1
1
2
=
+
− −
=
+ − −
=
+
+
− +
− −
=
− +
+ / + − / / + − / + − −
∗
=
∗
∗
∗
γ
γ γ γ
γ
γ
γ
γ
γ
γ γ γ γ γ
or
( )
M
M
M
M
M
H H
A A
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
21 2
1 2
1
1
2
1
2
2
1
1
1
2
1
2
1
1
=
+
−
−
−
=
+
+
−
+
+
−
=
=
γ
γ
γ γ
γ
γ
γ
( )
( )
ρ
ρ
γ
γ
2
1
1
2
1
2
1 2
1
2
2 1
2 1
2
1
2
1 2 1
1 2
= = = = =
+
− +
=
∗
∗
A A u
u
u
u u
u
a
M
M
M
u
p
ρ
T
e
u
p
ρ
T
e
τ 11
q
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
1 2

155
 
G Q= =0 0,
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
p
p
u
p
u
u
u
a
M
M
M
M
M M
M
2
1
1
2
1
1
2
1
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2 1
2
1
2 1
2 1
2
1
2
1
2
1 1 1 1
1 1
1 2
1
1
1 1 2
1
= + −





 = + −






= + −
− +
+





 = +
/ + − / − −
+
ρ
γ
ρ
ρ
γ
γ
γ
γ
γ γ
γ
or
(C.L.M.)
( )
p
p
M2
1
1
2
1
2
1
1= +
+
−
γ
γ
( )
( )
( )
h
h
T
T
p
p
M
M
M
a
a
h C T p RTp
2
1
2
1
2
1
1
2
1
2 1
2
1
2
2
1
1
2
1
1
1 2
1
= = = +
+
−






− +
+
=
= = ρ ρ
ρ
γ
γ
γ
γ
( )
( )
( )
s s
R
T
T
p
p
M
M
M
2 1 2
1
1
2
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
2
1
2
1
1
2
1
1
1 2
1
−
=






















= +
+
−






− +
+
















−
−
− −
ln ln
γ
γ
γ
γ
γ
γ
γ
γ
γ
γ
( )
( )
( )
( )
s s
R
M M
M
2 1
1 1
2 1
2 3
2
2 1
2 41
2
2
3 1
1
2
1
1
−
≈
+
− −
+
− +
− << γ
γ
γ
γ
K Shapiro p.125
u
p
ρ
T
e
u
p
ρ
T
e
τ 11
q
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
1 2

156
STEADY QUASI ONE-DIMENSIONAL FLOWSOLO
STAGNATION CONDITIONS
(C.E.) constuhuh =+=+ 2
22
2
11
2
1
2
1
The stagnation condition 0 is attained by reaching u = 0
2
/
21202
020
2
1
1
1
2
1
2
1
22
1
2
M
TR
u
Tc
u
T
T
c
u
TTuhh
TRa
auM
Rc
pp
Tch p
p
−
+=
−
+=+=→+=→+=
=
=
−
=
=
γ
γ
γ
γγ
γ
Using the Isentropic Chain relation, we obtain:
2
1
0102000
2
1
1 M
p
p
a
a
h
h
T
T −
+=





=





=





==
−
−
γ
ρ
ρ γ
γ
γ
Steady , Adiabatic + Inviscid = Reversible, , ( )
q Q= =0 0, ( )~ ~
τ = 0 ( )
 
G = 0
∂
∂ t
=





0

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