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Jigsaw
1. Applying a Critical Framework to
Understand Educational Restructuring in
England - Two Germanies: Historical
Ideological Perspectives; Pages 178-191
Lisa Smith
Chapman College University
EDUU 607
2. Tools as the Critical Evaluation of
Educational Reform
Theoretical adequacy
Policy effectiveness
Empirical validity
3. Theoretical Adequacy of the ERA
Results of the ERA were more political than
pedagogical
Reform was to reverse England’s economic decline,
maximize human resource, and stimulate social
progress
Based on theoretical foundation of human capital
formation
Assumption that national economic improvement is
connected with education improvement
4. Two guiding assertions of the ERA
Accountability
Clearer management roles
Administration of prescribed curriculum
Regular assessments
Holds educators and educational leaders responsible
Parental choice and localized control
Parents allowed to chose schools
School funding tied to enrollment
Schools must raise standard to attract students
Faced school closure with inadequate enrollment
Reduced teacher autonomy by increasing interest in parent
preferences and aligning instructional practice accordingly
5. Broad ERA Goals
Address lack of standards
Government adopted a highly detailed national curriculum
Expectations that schools will “bring 80 to 90 percent of all
pupils at least to the level of pupils of average ability in
individual subjects”
Make available the educational rigor long available to
the English elite extended to society
Potential to promote greater homogeneity in schools
throughout the system
Policy reinforced differences from school to school rather
than a standard educational experience
6. Flaws of the ERA
Proponents philosophy is the policy would help empower the parents of
British schoolchildren, however, ERA’s move to curricular standards and
assessments allowed little parent input
Funding latitude to certain schools but not to others
Educational variation within the school system
Freedom of parent choice is illusionary
Parents were free to chose which school to teach the centralized curriculum
Relationship of the reform’s measures to its promised outcome
Meaningful factor for assessing accomplishment is the equitability of educational
financing and distribution
England’s reformed schools are potentially elitists
Diagnoses of the educational system’s problems received little attention
Failed to directly attack underlying causes of ineffective schooling
7. Theoretical Adequacy Questions –
Teachers can apply these questions in thinking about plans for change
that they encounter in school
Is there a theoretical foundation for the proposed
reform?
What is the hypothesized relationship of the reform to
its stated outcome?
Are the claims being made in favor of the reform
theoretically sound? Plausible?
What other factors might theoretically account for the
observed outcomes?
Is the reform program taking those factors into
consideration?
8. Policy Effectiveness of the ERA
Appeal of choice school enlisted the support of the English citizenry for changes
Furthered the interests of the business and industry sectors sympathetic to
conservative ideologies
Problem of serving the minority populations continued to grow
Teachers objected to the national curriculum because of its emphasis on factual
learning and had little input in its development
Major expenses in developing and implementing its standard curriculum and national
tests, and constant adjustments
Similar to NCLB
No teacher flexibility in curriculum
Expected to adhere to instructional directives
Impeded teachers from applying professional judgments; accommodations, unexpected
situations, and ability levels
Popular schools were crowded
Due to constant revisions, teachers had insufficient time and resources to do their job
properly
9. Policy Effectiveness Questions –
Teachers can apply these questions in thinking about plans for change
that they encounter in school
Is there support for this reform (e.g., public,
governmental)?
Will there be threatened interest groups that will
attempt to sabotage it?
What are the resource allocation, teacher
training, and cost requirements of the reform?
How long will it take to implement it, and is it
enough time being given to adequately assess it?
10. Empirical Validity of ERA
Polls and survey results concluded that a relatively high level of support existed among
both parents and teachers just after the reform was put into place
Others refuted those claims using detailed anecdotal information
Parents had mixed feelings about the new system
Perception was the schools and curriculum were vulnerable to political manipulation
Parents identified themselves and consumers and schooling as a product
Little evidence existed on the validity the reform supplied what the parents needed
Research prior to the reform suggested that parents cared more about student
happiness, extra-curricular offerings, and school location than instructional excellence
Government ensured that parents would receive an annual report identifying their
school’s standing on a number of counts
Did not address broader interests among the parents such as general student contentment
Early research showed that some empirical justification existed about the system’s
potential to provide equitable opportunity
11. Empirical Validity Questions – Teachers
can apply these questions in thinking about plans for change that they
encounter in school
Is there any empirical evidence regarding the reform?
Is research available elsewhere regarding the successes
of similar programs?
If research was conducted, how satisfactory was the
research design?
What kind of claims and interpretations are being made
of the research findings?
Are the research findings unequivocal or ambiguous?
What might account for these findings?
12. Conclusions Regarding ERA
Similarities between Britain and the United States are obvious
Calls for educational change have been enthusiastic and relentless
Critics encouraging change identified educational reform as a key to
national economic progress, especially to the forces of globalization
Differences between Britain and the United States are obvious
England has enacted reform more quickly
British model had limitations in terms of its potential to demonstrate that
choice and competition can drive successful change
The British plan was self-contradictory
13. Sociopolitical Factors Shaping
Education in England and Germany
England Germany
Factor Factor
England has retained strong links to its Enormous war penalties on the
aristocratic past Germans contributed to a near loss of
Response confidence on the German economy
Mid 19th century “public schools” were
Hyperinflation was so pronounced
privately endowed schools as a charity during the early 1920s, a U.S. dollar
for poorer members of society was worth several trillion marks
Wealthier members were educated with Response
tutors Adolf Hitler rose to power
Educational Implications Educational Implications
Growth of middle class and the Schools were one of Hitler's’ most
Industrial Revolution brought a important mouthpiece for propaganda
demand for a secondary school that Contemporary German school system
might exclude the working class reflects safeguards against manipulation
Public schools were reformed to
provide an alternative to exclude the
poor
14. Education and New Challenges in
Post-Reunification Germany
No similar popular input or normal policy formulation
process existed
Integration of the former German Democratic
Republic (GDR) into the Federal Republic of Germany
(FDG) resulted in the overturning of East Germany’s
patterns of social commitment
East Germany was authoritarian in its control of
education
Directed the country’s teaching and learning with a
level of manipulation that matched the country’s
economy
15. Two Germanies: Historical and
Ideological Perspectives
Germany was divided following WWII as a
result of ideological differences among the Allies
Soviet Union embraced socialist beliefs
Western Allies supported capitalism
16. The Context of Reform: Schooling in
the Former GDR
Three overarching functions of the country’s
school system
Guarantee society’s economic development
Dismantle class structures and establish a
classless society
Ensure allegiance to the ideals of communist
SED (Socialist Unity Party) party and the active
engagement of East German citizens in securing
the party’s objectives
17. Polytechnical Upper Schools
Unified the tandem aims of academic and vocational education
10-year institutions
Attended 6 to 16 years of age
Emphasis on science and math
Near universal mode of education for East German youths
Embodied the principle of a classless society
All students attended the polytechnical school together
Aimed to produce well-rounded and versatile citizens and become
contributing members of the working class
Polytechnical education was “not any special subject of instruction”, but rather,
was intended to “penetrate all subjects,” linking them with practical activity,
especially with manual skills”
In the Marxist conception, their contributions in the workforce would create
an “unprecedented expansion of productivity” that would render class
distinctions meaningless
18. Polytechnical Upper Schools…continued
Youth’s allegiance to communist ideals were pursued in a
number of ways
A focus in civic class influence political values in students
Membership in the Free German Youth organization was
necessary for East German youths to secure their prospects for
advancement
Premilitary training was in the curriculum
Teacher monitored student activities noting progress toward
outcomes that were ideologically favorably and interceding
sometime heavy-handedly when students behaved unfavorably