This document provides an overview of key concepts in research methodology, including:
1. It defines research as an organized and systematic process of finding answers to questions through a defined set of steps and procedures.
2. It discusses different types of research including quantitative, qualitative, basic, applied, longitudinal, descriptive, classification, comparative, exploratory, explanatory, causal, theory testing, and theory building research.
3. It also discusses alternatives to research-based knowledge such as relying on authority, tradition, common sense, media, and personal experience.
There are several considerations when selecting a research topic, including academic/intellectual factors and practical applicability. Students may choose from assigned topics, field study topics using various resources, or free choice topics based on their own interests. Key factors in topic selection include the researcher's ability to study the topic thoroughly, available resources and techniques, and the topic's relevance to existing theories. Formulating a research problem involves discovering an issue in need of study and narrowing it to a manageable size. Developing testable hypotheses, clearly defining concepts, and establishing operational definitions allows relating findings to broader knowledge.
Research and scientific method - Research Methodology - Manu Melwin Joymanumelwin
For a clear perception of the term research, one should know the meaning of scientific method. The two terms, research and scientific method, are closely related.
Research is defined as a systematic investigation designed to develop or contribute to generalizable knowledge. It involves carefully defining problems, formulating hypotheses, collecting and organizing data, making deductions, reaching conclusions, and testing conclusions. The main objectives of research are to gain familiarity with phenomena, accurately portray characteristics, determine frequencies of occurrences, and test hypotheses of causal relationships between variables. In conclusion, research is a systematic and logical process that follows specified steps in a specified sequence according to a set of rules.
This document discusses identifying and formulating research problems. It defines a research problem as a question a researcher wants to answer or a problem they want to solve. Identifying and formulating the research problem is the first step in the research process. The document outlines the components of a research problem, sources of problems, criteria for selection, steps in identifying problems, and dos and don'ts for selecting a problem. It emphasizes that formulating a problem well is important, and describes the steps in properly formulating a problem, including developing a title, conceptual model, objectives, and hypotheses.
This document provides an overview of case study research. It defines case study as a qualitative approach that focuses on a bounded system. Case study is not a methodological choice but a choice of what to study. It can be used to answer descriptive and explanatory questions. There are three main types of case studies: intrinsic, instrumental, and collective. Case studies are particularistic, descriptive, and heuristic. They involve collecting data through various techniques. Cross-site analysis strategies help compare multiple cases. Case studies have strengths like providing an in-depth understanding but also limitations such as subjectivity. Examples of famous case studies include studies of Genie the feral child and Jill Price.
Explanation in science (philosophy of science)Anuj Bhatia
This document discusses scientific explanation and the challenges involved. It summarizes Carl Hempel's covering law model of explanation and identifies some of its limitations, such as not respecting asymmetry and allowing irrelevant explanations. The document also discusses how causality may provide a better approach than covering laws. Additionally, it notes that while science can explain many phenomena, some things like the origin of life may remain unexplained or be fundamentally unexplainable by science. The document also discusses reductionism and how higher-level sciences are autonomous due to multiple realization.
Publication ethics: Definitions, Introduction and ImportanceVasantha Raju N
The document provides an overview of publication ethics and discusses its importance. It defines publication ethics as the principles and standards associated with publishing scientific research results. This includes giving proper credit and authorship, avoiding plagiarism and duplicate publication, managing conflicts of interest, and not falsifying or fabricating research data. The document highlights various unethical practices like plagiarism, gift authorship, and predatory journals. It also discusses guidelines from organizations like COPE, ICMJE and reporting standards to promote ethical research practices.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in research methodology, including:
1. It defines research as an organized and systematic process of finding answers to questions through a defined set of steps and procedures.
2. It discusses different types of research including quantitative, qualitative, basic, applied, longitudinal, descriptive, classification, comparative, exploratory, explanatory, causal, theory testing, and theory building research.
3. It also discusses alternatives to research-based knowledge such as relying on authority, tradition, common sense, media, and personal experience.
There are several considerations when selecting a research topic, including academic/intellectual factors and practical applicability. Students may choose from assigned topics, field study topics using various resources, or free choice topics based on their own interests. Key factors in topic selection include the researcher's ability to study the topic thoroughly, available resources and techniques, and the topic's relevance to existing theories. Formulating a research problem involves discovering an issue in need of study and narrowing it to a manageable size. Developing testable hypotheses, clearly defining concepts, and establishing operational definitions allows relating findings to broader knowledge.
Research and scientific method - Research Methodology - Manu Melwin Joymanumelwin
For a clear perception of the term research, one should know the meaning of scientific method. The two terms, research and scientific method, are closely related.
Research is defined as a systematic investigation designed to develop or contribute to generalizable knowledge. It involves carefully defining problems, formulating hypotheses, collecting and organizing data, making deductions, reaching conclusions, and testing conclusions. The main objectives of research are to gain familiarity with phenomena, accurately portray characteristics, determine frequencies of occurrences, and test hypotheses of causal relationships between variables. In conclusion, research is a systematic and logical process that follows specified steps in a specified sequence according to a set of rules.
This document discusses identifying and formulating research problems. It defines a research problem as a question a researcher wants to answer or a problem they want to solve. Identifying and formulating the research problem is the first step in the research process. The document outlines the components of a research problem, sources of problems, criteria for selection, steps in identifying problems, and dos and don'ts for selecting a problem. It emphasizes that formulating a problem well is important, and describes the steps in properly formulating a problem, including developing a title, conceptual model, objectives, and hypotheses.
This document provides an overview of case study research. It defines case study as a qualitative approach that focuses on a bounded system. Case study is not a methodological choice but a choice of what to study. It can be used to answer descriptive and explanatory questions. There are three main types of case studies: intrinsic, instrumental, and collective. Case studies are particularistic, descriptive, and heuristic. They involve collecting data through various techniques. Cross-site analysis strategies help compare multiple cases. Case studies have strengths like providing an in-depth understanding but also limitations such as subjectivity. Examples of famous case studies include studies of Genie the feral child and Jill Price.
Explanation in science (philosophy of science)Anuj Bhatia
This document discusses scientific explanation and the challenges involved. It summarizes Carl Hempel's covering law model of explanation and identifies some of its limitations, such as not respecting asymmetry and allowing irrelevant explanations. The document also discusses how causality may provide a better approach than covering laws. Additionally, it notes that while science can explain many phenomena, some things like the origin of life may remain unexplained or be fundamentally unexplainable by science. The document also discusses reductionism and how higher-level sciences are autonomous due to multiple realization.
Publication ethics: Definitions, Introduction and ImportanceVasantha Raju N
The document provides an overview of publication ethics and discusses its importance. It defines publication ethics as the principles and standards associated with publishing scientific research results. This includes giving proper credit and authorship, avoiding plagiarism and duplicate publication, managing conflicts of interest, and not falsifying or fabricating research data. The document highlights various unethical practices like plagiarism, gift authorship, and predatory journals. It also discusses guidelines from organizations like COPE, ICMJE and reporting standards to promote ethical research practices.
This document discusses experimental design in statistics. It defines experimental design as a planned interference by the researcher to manipulate events rather than just observe them. It discusses key principles of experimental design like replication and randomization. It also describes different types of experimental designs like completely randomized design, randomized block design, and Latin square design; and notes that researchers use experimental designs to make causal inferences and rule out alternative explanations. The goal of experimental design is to gain unambiguous information about what factors cause the effects being studied.
Selective reporting and misrepresentation of data can lead to false conclusions and flawed decision making. Selective reporting involves intentionally presenting only information that supports a viewpoint while ignoring contradictory information. Misrepresentation distorts data to create a false impression. Both can occur through publication bias, outcome reporting bias, data dredging, spin, selective citation, data falsification, cherry-picking, manipulation, misinterpretation, and omission. Researchers should ensure transparency, present all relevant data, use appropriate statistical methods, verify sources, obtain independent review, follow ethical standards, and acknowledge limitations to avoid these issues.
This document is quoted from Academic Writing Skill, IFL, Cambodia. It's for students in year three not only at IFL but also other universities in Cambodia.
This document discusses research and its importance. It defines research and outlines its purposes and significance. Research involves systematic inquiry through scientific methods to describe, explain, predict, and control observed phenomena. It is important as it builds knowledge, facilitates learning, aids business success, supports truths and finds opportunities. High-quality research requires a clearly defined scope, objective design, ethical standards, and justified conclusions supported by evidence. The different types of research include qualitative, quantitative, applied, and action research. Research design provides the framework for data collection and analysis, and involves conceptualization, operationalization, reliability and validity.
This document provides an overview of case study research methods. It defines a case study as an in-depth analysis of a single entity within its real-world context. The document discusses case study paradigms, types including intrinsic and instrumental, purposes such as explanatory and exploratory, designs including single and multiple case, methodology involving data collection from documentation and interviews, and analysis techniques like pattern matching. It also reviews issues in reporting case studies and lists some merits like understanding contemporary contexts and demerits like lack of generalization.
This document outlines a presentation on experimental research methods prepared by Group C for Professor Nafiz Zaman Shuva at the University of Dhaka. The presentation highlights the definition of research and experimental methods, the steps of experimental research including identifying a problem, reviewing literature, formulating hypotheses, designing an experiment, collecting and analyzing data, and presenting findings. It also discusses the advantages of experimental research in determining cause-and-effect relationships through manipulation and control of variables, and the disadvantages related to limitations in controlling all variables and generalizing experimental results to real-world settings.
The document outlines key aspects of research methodology including:
1. The objectives of research such as defining problems, formulating hypotheses, collecting and evaluating data, making deductions, and testing conclusions.
2. The different types of research including descriptive, applied, quantitative, conceptual, empirical, qualitative, fundamental, and analytical research.
3. The methods of collecting data including primary methods like questionnaires, observations, interviews, and schedules and secondary methods of collecting published and unpublished data from various sources.
This document provides an overview of research methodology. It defines research as a systematic, scientific process for discovering new knowledge. The objectives of research are described as gaining familiarity with a phenomenon, accurately portraying characteristics of a situation, determining frequency of occurrences, and testing hypotheses. The main types of social research discussed are descriptive, analytical, applied, fundamental, quantitative, and qualitative. Research methods are grouped into those for data collection, establishing relationships between data and variables, and evaluating results. Key aspects of research methodology include explaining the logic and reasons for the methods used to study a problem.
This document provides an introduction to research methodology. It defines what research is, including that it is a formal, systematic process using the scientific method. The document discusses the aims of research as discovering new information, expanding knowledge, and solving problems. Basic research aims to contribute to knowledge, while applied research aims to solve current problems. The document also discusses internal vs. external research teams, how managers should interact with researchers, research ethics, and the scientific investigation process. It provides examples of research areas and defines different types of hypotheses used in research.
Steps in Research-Types of research-Types of Steps in Research-Types of resea...AbhishikthSandeep1
This document discusses research methods and design. It defines research as a systematic, scientific investigation of a topic to discover new facts or test hypotheses. Research aims to contribute new knowledge through carefully defining problems, formulating hypotheses, collecting and analyzing data, reaching conclusions, and testing conclusions. The key objectives of research are exploratory, descriptive, diagnostic, and hypothesis testing. Characteristics of good research include being directed, empirical, carefully recorded and reported. The common steps in research are formulating the problem, reviewing literature, developing hypotheses, deciding design, collecting and analyzing data, testing hypotheses, and reporting conclusions.
This document discusses the process of formulating hypotheses. It begins by defining hypothesis formulation as creating possible tentative explanations for a given set of information or research. It then outlines the two contexts in which hypotheses are formulated - the context of discovery, where hypotheses emerge from prior research, and the context of justification, where researchers communicate their hypotheses. The document proceeds to list the six steps in formulating a hypothesis: 1) understanding the problem area, 2) considering the goal, 3) identifying variables, 4) identifying relationships between variables, 5) critically thinking about the hypothesis, and 6) expressing the idea as a hypothesis. Finally, it notes that properly formulating hypotheses can be difficult.
This document discusses hypotheses in research methods. It defines a hypothesis as a specific, testable statement of prediction about what is expected to happen in a study. The document outlines the assumption, nature, roles, importance, and characteristics of hypotheses. It discusses the sources and types of hypotheses, including simple, complex, directional, and associative hypotheses. Finally, it describes the uses of hypotheses in experimental, survey, historical, and complex causal research. Hypotheses guide research, focus studies, and allow theories to be tested through empirical investigation.
Research Methodology Introduction ch1
MEANING OF RESEARCH, OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH,TYPES OF RESEARCH,Research Approaches ,Research Methods versus Methodology,research process guideline:
The slides will help you in knowing the components of research design in brief what is research design, components of research design, differnt types of research design
The document outlines 7 criteria for good scientific research:
1. The purpose and concepts should be clearly defined.
2. The research procedures should be described in detail so others can repeat the work.
3. The design should plan for objective results.
4. Any flaws in the design or their effects should be reported honestly.
It also lists 4 key qualities of good research: it is systematic, logical, empirical, and replicable.
Research, Types and objectives of research Bindu Kshtriya
This presentation is regarding the basics of research method, about the voyage of research, steps included in research, types of research including descriptive, analytical, applied, fundamental, quantitative, qualitative conceptual, empirical historical conclusion oriented etc
This document discusses theory building and testing. It defines a theory as a system of constructs and propositions that provide a logical explanation of a phenomenon. The process of theory building involves observation, description, categorization, analyzing patterns, generating hypotheses, and testing for validity. Theories frame research by directing questions and helping make sense of data. Theory building requires synthesizing literature to explain a phenomenon from a new perspective, while theory testing assesses if a chosen theory plausibly explains a phenomenon. Approaches to theory building include grounded theory, bottom-up conceptual analysis, extending or modifying existing theories, and applying theories to new contexts.
In this ppt Research and Theory explained in detail which covers Meaning of theory, Definition of Theory, Contribution of Research to Theory, Criteria of Theory, Theory and Facts, Role of Theory in Research, Uses of Theory in Research
This document discusses the concept of a hypothesis. It defines a hypothesis as a tentative statement about the solution to a research problem or as conjectural statement about the relationship between two or more variables. The document outlines the importance of hypotheses in guiding focused inquiry and preventing blind research. It also describes characteristics of a good hypothesis, sources of hypotheses, different types of hypotheses including universal, existential, descriptive, explanatory, and null hypotheses. Finally, it discusses potential problems in formulating hypotheses and types of errors in testing hypotheses.
This document provides an overview of logic and the scientific method. It defines logic as the study of correct reasoning and the principles of valid arguments. It notes logic is concerned with how we ought to reason, not the psychology of actual reasoning. The document then discusses the scientific method, noting it aims to discover facts through reflection and hypotheses. Scientific inquiry uses probable inference and theories can be modified as evidence demands. The ideal of science is to achieve a systematic interconnection of facts for increased accuracy and information. Empiricism and observation are central to the scientific method.
This document discusses experimental design in statistics. It defines experimental design as a planned interference by the researcher to manipulate events rather than just observe them. It discusses key principles of experimental design like replication and randomization. It also describes different types of experimental designs like completely randomized design, randomized block design, and Latin square design; and notes that researchers use experimental designs to make causal inferences and rule out alternative explanations. The goal of experimental design is to gain unambiguous information about what factors cause the effects being studied.
Selective reporting and misrepresentation of data can lead to false conclusions and flawed decision making. Selective reporting involves intentionally presenting only information that supports a viewpoint while ignoring contradictory information. Misrepresentation distorts data to create a false impression. Both can occur through publication bias, outcome reporting bias, data dredging, spin, selective citation, data falsification, cherry-picking, manipulation, misinterpretation, and omission. Researchers should ensure transparency, present all relevant data, use appropriate statistical methods, verify sources, obtain independent review, follow ethical standards, and acknowledge limitations to avoid these issues.
This document is quoted from Academic Writing Skill, IFL, Cambodia. It's for students in year three not only at IFL but also other universities in Cambodia.
This document discusses research and its importance. It defines research and outlines its purposes and significance. Research involves systematic inquiry through scientific methods to describe, explain, predict, and control observed phenomena. It is important as it builds knowledge, facilitates learning, aids business success, supports truths and finds opportunities. High-quality research requires a clearly defined scope, objective design, ethical standards, and justified conclusions supported by evidence. The different types of research include qualitative, quantitative, applied, and action research. Research design provides the framework for data collection and analysis, and involves conceptualization, operationalization, reliability and validity.
This document provides an overview of case study research methods. It defines a case study as an in-depth analysis of a single entity within its real-world context. The document discusses case study paradigms, types including intrinsic and instrumental, purposes such as explanatory and exploratory, designs including single and multiple case, methodology involving data collection from documentation and interviews, and analysis techniques like pattern matching. It also reviews issues in reporting case studies and lists some merits like understanding contemporary contexts and demerits like lack of generalization.
This document outlines a presentation on experimental research methods prepared by Group C for Professor Nafiz Zaman Shuva at the University of Dhaka. The presentation highlights the definition of research and experimental methods, the steps of experimental research including identifying a problem, reviewing literature, formulating hypotheses, designing an experiment, collecting and analyzing data, and presenting findings. It also discusses the advantages of experimental research in determining cause-and-effect relationships through manipulation and control of variables, and the disadvantages related to limitations in controlling all variables and generalizing experimental results to real-world settings.
The document outlines key aspects of research methodology including:
1. The objectives of research such as defining problems, formulating hypotheses, collecting and evaluating data, making deductions, and testing conclusions.
2. The different types of research including descriptive, applied, quantitative, conceptual, empirical, qualitative, fundamental, and analytical research.
3. The methods of collecting data including primary methods like questionnaires, observations, interviews, and schedules and secondary methods of collecting published and unpublished data from various sources.
This document provides an overview of research methodology. It defines research as a systematic, scientific process for discovering new knowledge. The objectives of research are described as gaining familiarity with a phenomenon, accurately portraying characteristics of a situation, determining frequency of occurrences, and testing hypotheses. The main types of social research discussed are descriptive, analytical, applied, fundamental, quantitative, and qualitative. Research methods are grouped into those for data collection, establishing relationships between data and variables, and evaluating results. Key aspects of research methodology include explaining the logic and reasons for the methods used to study a problem.
This document provides an introduction to research methodology. It defines what research is, including that it is a formal, systematic process using the scientific method. The document discusses the aims of research as discovering new information, expanding knowledge, and solving problems. Basic research aims to contribute to knowledge, while applied research aims to solve current problems. The document also discusses internal vs. external research teams, how managers should interact with researchers, research ethics, and the scientific investigation process. It provides examples of research areas and defines different types of hypotheses used in research.
Steps in Research-Types of research-Types of Steps in Research-Types of resea...AbhishikthSandeep1
This document discusses research methods and design. It defines research as a systematic, scientific investigation of a topic to discover new facts or test hypotheses. Research aims to contribute new knowledge through carefully defining problems, formulating hypotheses, collecting and analyzing data, reaching conclusions, and testing conclusions. The key objectives of research are exploratory, descriptive, diagnostic, and hypothesis testing. Characteristics of good research include being directed, empirical, carefully recorded and reported. The common steps in research are formulating the problem, reviewing literature, developing hypotheses, deciding design, collecting and analyzing data, testing hypotheses, and reporting conclusions.
This document discusses the process of formulating hypotheses. It begins by defining hypothesis formulation as creating possible tentative explanations for a given set of information or research. It then outlines the two contexts in which hypotheses are formulated - the context of discovery, where hypotheses emerge from prior research, and the context of justification, where researchers communicate their hypotheses. The document proceeds to list the six steps in formulating a hypothesis: 1) understanding the problem area, 2) considering the goal, 3) identifying variables, 4) identifying relationships between variables, 5) critically thinking about the hypothesis, and 6) expressing the idea as a hypothesis. Finally, it notes that properly formulating hypotheses can be difficult.
This document discusses hypotheses in research methods. It defines a hypothesis as a specific, testable statement of prediction about what is expected to happen in a study. The document outlines the assumption, nature, roles, importance, and characteristics of hypotheses. It discusses the sources and types of hypotheses, including simple, complex, directional, and associative hypotheses. Finally, it describes the uses of hypotheses in experimental, survey, historical, and complex causal research. Hypotheses guide research, focus studies, and allow theories to be tested through empirical investigation.
Research Methodology Introduction ch1
MEANING OF RESEARCH, OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH,TYPES OF RESEARCH,Research Approaches ,Research Methods versus Methodology,research process guideline:
The slides will help you in knowing the components of research design in brief what is research design, components of research design, differnt types of research design
The document outlines 7 criteria for good scientific research:
1. The purpose and concepts should be clearly defined.
2. The research procedures should be described in detail so others can repeat the work.
3. The design should plan for objective results.
4. Any flaws in the design or their effects should be reported honestly.
It also lists 4 key qualities of good research: it is systematic, logical, empirical, and replicable.
Research, Types and objectives of research Bindu Kshtriya
This presentation is regarding the basics of research method, about the voyage of research, steps included in research, types of research including descriptive, analytical, applied, fundamental, quantitative, qualitative conceptual, empirical historical conclusion oriented etc
This document discusses theory building and testing. It defines a theory as a system of constructs and propositions that provide a logical explanation of a phenomenon. The process of theory building involves observation, description, categorization, analyzing patterns, generating hypotheses, and testing for validity. Theories frame research by directing questions and helping make sense of data. Theory building requires synthesizing literature to explain a phenomenon from a new perspective, while theory testing assesses if a chosen theory plausibly explains a phenomenon. Approaches to theory building include grounded theory, bottom-up conceptual analysis, extending or modifying existing theories, and applying theories to new contexts.
In this ppt Research and Theory explained in detail which covers Meaning of theory, Definition of Theory, Contribution of Research to Theory, Criteria of Theory, Theory and Facts, Role of Theory in Research, Uses of Theory in Research
This document discusses the concept of a hypothesis. It defines a hypothesis as a tentative statement about the solution to a research problem or as conjectural statement about the relationship between two or more variables. The document outlines the importance of hypotheses in guiding focused inquiry and preventing blind research. It also describes characteristics of a good hypothesis, sources of hypotheses, different types of hypotheses including universal, existential, descriptive, explanatory, and null hypotheses. Finally, it discusses potential problems in formulating hypotheses and types of errors in testing hypotheses.
This document provides an overview of logic and the scientific method. It defines logic as the study of correct reasoning and the principles of valid arguments. It notes logic is concerned with how we ought to reason, not the psychology of actual reasoning. The document then discusses the scientific method, noting it aims to discover facts through reflection and hypotheses. Scientific inquiry uses probable inference and theories can be modified as evidence demands. The ideal of science is to achieve a systematic interconnection of facts for increased accuracy and information. Empiricism and observation are central to the scientific method.
This document discusses different types of hypotheses used in research. It defines a hypothesis as a proposed explanation for a phenomenon that can be tested. The main types discussed are simple vs complex hypotheses, logical vs empirical hypotheses, directional vs non-directional hypotheses, associative vs causal hypotheses, and the null hypothesis vs the alternative hypothesis. It also discusses types of errors that can occur when testing hypotheses and concludes by emphasizing that hypotheses are provisional explanations that must be tested and can be replaced if not supported.
This document discusses the theory of knowledge and science's claim to be the supreme form of knowledge. It examines the objectivity and empirical nature of the scientific method, particularly verification processes based on inductive and deductive reasoning. The document then analyzes the hypothetico-deductive model, which uses a combination of verification techniques. Specifically, it claims hypotheses can be tested and confirmed through predicting events and seeing if they occur as expected, with confirmation being inductive since the hypothesis holds true multiple times. However, the hypothetico-deductive model is still subject to flaws of inductive reasoning.
Truth, fact and ethics in academic researchDr. Utpal Das
Truth in academic research refers to facts that have been proven through repeated experiments and evidence. Scientific truths must be reproducible, verifiable, and falsifiable. Facts are statements that have been proven true through evidence, while opinions and beliefs are not necessarily based on evidence. Research ethics provide guidelines for responsible and moral conduct in research to maximize benefits and minimize harms. Key principles include honesty, objectivity, integrity, openness, respecting intellectual property, confidentiality, and non-discrimination.
The document discusses the hypothetico-deductive method of science. It notes that previously induction was seen as the method of science but was later criticized. The hypothetico-deductive method involves:
1) Scientists making hypotheses to explain observations and phenomena, which involves creativity and synthesis.
2) Logically deducing consequences from the hypotheses.
3) Empirically testing the deduced consequences to validate or falsify the hypotheses.
Through this process, hypotheses are refined and scientific explanations are developed in an iterative manner.
This document provides information on hypotheses in research. It defines a hypothesis as a tentative statement proposed to explain certain facts or observations. A hypothesis should be specific, testable, and stated in advance of data collection. Hypotheses can be categorized as null or research hypotheses based on their formulation. They can also be directional or non-directional based on whether they specify an expected direction of results. Hypotheses are either deductively or inductively derived depending on whether they are tested top-down from existing theory or built bottom-up from observations.
The document discusses hypotheses, providing definitions and discussing the nature, types, and formulation of hypotheses. It defines a hypothesis as a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables that can be tested. The main types discussed are the null hypothesis, which represents a theory to be tested, and the alternative hypothesis, which is the opposite of the null hypothesis. It also discusses how hypotheses are formulated differently for qualitative versus quantitative research, with qualitative research often using research questions rather than hypotheses.
This document discusses the demarcation of science from pseudoscience and the criterion of falsifiability. It explores how theoretical sciences like cosmology and theoretical physics deal with phenomena that are unobservable and difficult to falsify. While mathematics and theoretical constructs are useful for developing scientific understanding, overreliance on interpretation of data without direct observation can compromise objectivity and falsifiability. Determining what constitutes science versus pseudoscience or non-science is a complex problem with no definitive answers.
Research involves systematically studying a topic to establish facts and reach new conclusions. A hypothesis is an educated guess about how things work that can be tested through research. It relates an independent variable to a dependent variable. The null hypothesis states there is no relationship between variables, while the alternative hypothesis suggests a potential outcome. Alternative hypotheses can be directional, specifying the expected relationship, or non-directional, without a specified direction. Hypotheses guide research by providing a framework for data collection and interpretation.
This document summarizes Lightbrown's classifications of research on second language learning and discusses theories, hypotheses, and the evaluation of theories. It outlines three types of research - descriptive studies, experimental pedagogical studies, and hypothesis-testing studies. Theories aim to interpret and unify facts through illumination, while hypotheses are uncertain suggestions tested through data. Theories are evaluated based on correspondence norms like explanatory power, coherence norms like simplicity, and pragmatic norms like elegance and practicality.
This document discusses the importance, characteristics, formulation, and types of hypotheses in research. Some key points:
- A hypothesis gives focus and direction to a study by clarifying goals, variables, and design. It helps understand problems and prevent irrelevant data collection.
- Characteristics of a hypothesis include being tentative, testable, and relating theory to observations. Good hypotheses are clear, limited in scope, and consistent with known facts.
- Formulating hypotheses requires background knowledge, intellectual versatility, deductive/inductive reasoning, and analogy. Hypotheses can be directional, non-directional, declarative, null, or question-based.
- Types of hypotheses include simple, complex,
This document discusses different methods of acquiring knowledge and paradigms for social research. It outlines four main methods of acquiring knowledge: tenacity, authority, a priori, and science. It then contrasts the positivist and interpretivist paradigms for social research. The scientific method is also summarized, including identifying problems, formulating hypotheses, deductive reasoning, and testing hypotheses. The aims of science are described as description, explanation, and prediction.
This document discusses hypothesis formulation in research. It defines a hypothesis as a statement about the relationship between two or more variables that is tested in a research study. A complete hypothesis includes the variables, population, and relationship between variables. There are different types of variables, populations, and relationships that can be included in a hypothesis. The document also outlines different types of hypotheses like simple, complex, directional, and non-directional and discusses how to properly formulate a hypothesis. Formulating a good hypothesis is important as it provides focus, direction, and guides the research process.
This document outlines key aspects of the research process. It discusses how research involves systematically investigating a topic to establish new facts and conclusions. It also explains that forming a clear research question and hypothesis is important, as well as designing experiments to test hypotheses and relying on data rather than assumptions. The document emphasizes that research seeks to demonstrate probabilities rather than prove absolute truths.
This document discusses hypothesis construction in research methodology. It defines a hypothesis as a proposed explanation or relationship between variables that is testable but unproven. Hypotheses provide focus and direction for a study by indicating what data to collect. There are two main types: research hypotheses that predict a relationship, stated as equality; and alternative hypotheses that predict an alternative if the null is false, stated as inequality. Hypotheses must be simple, verifiable, related to existing knowledge, and operationalizable. Errors can occur if the study design, sampling, data collection, analysis, or conclusions are flawed. Qualitative research does not strictly require or test hypotheses but may formulate them to highlight phenomena and relationships.
This document provides an overview of hypotheses in research methodology. It defines a hypothesis as a tentative explanation or educated guess about a research problem or outcome. There are several types of hypotheses, including research hypotheses (simple or complex), directional vs. non-directional, associative vs. causal, statistical vs. null hypotheses. Variables are also defined, including independent and dependent variables. Formulating a strong hypothesis requires an understanding of the topic area and existing research findings. Overall, hypotheses help focus research and provide a framework for analyzing results.
This document outlines a master's program for the first trimester of 2022-2023 at the College of Nursing at the University of Baghdad. It lists the names of 6 students and their supervisor, Dr. Widad Kamel. The program will cover topics related to formulating hypotheses for nursing research such as the purposes of hypotheses, characteristics of good hypotheses, sources of hypotheses, types of hypotheses, and how to word and test hypotheses. References for further information are also provided.
This document provides an introduction to business research. It defines research as a systematic inquiry seeking facts through objective methods to discover relationships and draw conclusions. Research is important for business decision making by providing objective facts and analysis to support decisions. The document outlines different types of research methods and discusses the significance of research in various business functions and areas like production, marketing, finance, and human resources. Research helps businesses with strategic planning, new product development, process improvement, and effective management.
A demat account allows investors to hold securities digitally and trade shares online. However, demat accounts also have some shortcomings. Demat accounts require yearly fees to cover maintenance costs and force investors to trade frequently online. This level of technology literacy and high trading frequency can prevent long-term investing and result in losses. Demat account holders must also monitor stockbroker activities and may need to agree to additional contracts.
A demat account allows investors to hold shares and securities in electronic format rather than physical certificates. It provides benefits like seamless and fast transfer of shares, facilitates digitally secured storage of investments, and easy tracking of trading activities. A demat account provides a convenient way to hold shares and securities by eliminating risks of theft, forgery or damage of physical certificates. It allows for immediate digital transfer of securities once a trade is approved. Demat accounts do not require a minimum balance of shares and one can hold multiple demat accounts linked to a single PAN number.
Mobile banking allows users to conduct financial transactions using a mobile device and provides services such as accessing account statements, monitoring term deposits, receiving account alerts, managing mutual funds and insurance policies, and accessing loan and card statements. It is a branch of e-commerce that uses information and communication technology for business and financial management, with mobile commerce classified into obtaining information, conducting transactions, and providing services related to a product or service.
The Ombudsman scheme provides independent dispute resolution between organizations and their customers. It was first established in Sweden in 1915 and has since been adopted by many governments and private entities. The SEBI Ombudsman Regulations established the Ombudsman scheme in India in 2003 to handle investor complaints against listed companies and intermediaries. The Ombudsman investigates complaints, makes recommendations, provides guidance, monitors practices, and reports on complaints regarding issues like non-receipt of shares or funds. Complaints not resolved within one month can be referred to the Ombudsman.
The document discusses factors that affect share prices, including supply and demand, interest rates, current events, and exchange rates. Supply and demand directly impact share prices, with prices rising when demand exceeds supply and falling when supply outweighs demand. Interest rates and monetary policy decisions also influence prices, with higher rates typically lowering prices. Current domestic and global events can positively or negatively impact investor sentiment and market prices. Exchange rates also play a role, as a stronger rupee against the dollar is often correlated with economic growth and higher stock values.
This document outlines the rights of investors as shareholders, debenture holders, and security holders. As a shareholder, investors have rights to receive dividends and inspect company records. They can also apply to have meetings called or the company wound up. As a group, shareholders can call extraordinary meetings and demand polls. As debenture holders, investors are entitled to interest payments and can take action if debentures are in default. The document stresses that investors have responsibilities to be informed, vigilant, and participate in company meetings by exercising their rights individually or as a group.
Small investor confidence can affect stock prices, with rising confidence leading to bull markets and falling confidence resulting in bear markets. Factors like company news, economic conditions, and regulatory actions influence investor confidence. The Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) regulates India's securities market, but small investors may lose confidence in SEBI due to regulatory failures, lack of awareness about SEBI's role, perceived inefficiencies, or rampant insider trading. This could have negative effects like reduced market participation and investment from small investors. To regain confidence, SEBI must address transparency, communication, and strict enforcement against fraud and insider trading.
The Bombay Stock Exchange (BSE) is the oldest stock exchange in Asia and provides various facilities to members and investors including trading, clearing and settlement, listing, market data, investor services, and international services. BSE offers a platform for trading various financial instruments, a comprehensive clearing and settlement system, listing services for companies, real-time market data and statistics, online trading and education for investors, and access to global markets through international partnerships.
This document discusses key trends driving e-commerce growth including omnichannel presence, extensive personalization, shift to mobile, conversational marketing, AI/chatbots, image search, and efficient checkout processes. It explains how technologies like video chat, co-browsing, and e-signatures allow for interconnected customer experiences across channels. Personalization is highlighted as important for understanding customer preferences and behavior. Mobile platforms and apps, location-based marketing, and augmented reality are increasing in importance.
Encryption is the process of converting a readable plaintext message into an unreadable cipher text message. Decryption is the reverse process of converting cipher text back into a readable plaintext format. The encryption process uses a public key at the sender's end to encrypt the message into unreadable cipher text. Decryption uses a private key at the receiver's end to decode the cipher text back into the original readable plaintext message. Encryption and decryption ensure secure transmission and storage of sensitive data that can only be accessed by authorized parties with the proper keys.
Meaning, Anatomy and Forces Fueling e-commerceRajaKrishnan M
E-commerce involves the buying and selling of goods and services over the Internet. It can occur between businesses, businesses and consumers, consumers and businesses, and consumers directly. E-commerce uses electronic means like websites to facilitate commercial transactions. It requires large multimedia storage servers to hold content like audio, video, images and text. Information is delivered to consumer access devices through telecom, cable, computer or wireless networks. Three key forces fueling the growth of e-commerce are economic factors like lower costs, marketing advantages of new channels and personalized service, and advancing digital technologies.
E-commerce is the process of buying, selling, or exchanging products, services, and information via electronic networks and computers. It allows consumers to exchange goods and services without barriers of time or distance. Key drivers of e-commerce growth include economic, technological, market, and social factors. Economically, e-commerce enables lower-cost interactions between businesses and partners, cheaper advertising and customer service, and higher profits through reduced overhead.
This document discusses interorganizational systems (IOS) and e-commerce. It defines IOS as occurring between two or more organizations collaborating and sharing information. It describes different levels of IOS including individual organizations, networks themselves, and wider communities. It also outlines types of IOS at different technological stages from pre-internet to modern web 2.0 systems. Key benefits of IOS include enabling efficient supply chain management, facilitating technology exchange, allowing for global communication, and reducing business risks.
This document discusses five factors that influence the adoption of mobile commerce (m-commerce): perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, perceived trust, perceived cost, and perceived privacy. It provides definitions and explanations of each factor, describing how researchers have proposed that higher perceptions of usefulness, ease of use, trust, and privacy as well as lower perceptions of cost would positively influence consumers' adoption of m-commerce.
This document discusses the advantages and disadvantages of e-commerce. Some key advantages include low financial costs to start an e-business, the ability to operate 24/7 globally, and easily gaining customer data. However, disadvantages include sites crashing and customers being unable to try products before buying. Additionally, e-commerce faces high competition, potential quality issues, and security/technical challenges from poor implementation or evolving standards.
This document outlines 7 types of e-commerce business models:
1) Business-to-Business (B2B) where businesses sell products to other businesses for resale.
2) Business-to-Consumer (B2C) where businesses sell directly to consumers through websites like Amazon and Flipkart.
3) Consumer-to-Consumer (C2C) where individuals sell used goods to other consumers through sites like OLX and Quickr.
E-commerce refers to the buying and selling of goods and services, and the transfer of funds and data, over the internet. It allows for commercial transactions between businesses and consumers with no barriers of time or distance. While e-commerce involves commercial transactions via the internet, e-business relies entirely on the internet for all company activities from procurement to marketing to sales. E-commerce has grown exponentially in recent decades, emerging in the 1970s on private networks and accelerating with the creation of the world wide web and first online stores in the early 1990s.
This document discusses several topics related to mobile computing and m-commerce. It begins with an overview of RFID technology, including the basic components and types of RFID tags. It then covers WiMAX and how it provides wireless broadband connectivity over large areas. Finally, it discusses SMS and its use for short text messages. The document also outlines some security issues and safety measures for mobile computing.
The document discusses electronic data interchange (EDI) and the internet. It defines EDI as the electronic exchange of business documents between organizations in a standardized format. Common documents exchanged via EDI include invoices, purchase orders, and shipping notices. The document also outlines several benefits of EDI for industries like retail, manufacturing, and automobiles. It provides a brief history of the internet and defines key terms like protocols and the world wide web. EDI is useful for regular exchanges between business partners in industries like supply chain management.
LAND USE LAND COVER AND NDVI OF MIRZAPUR DISTRICT, UPRAHUL
This Dissertation explores the particular circumstances of Mirzapur, a region located in the
core of India. Mirzapur, with its varied terrains and abundant biodiversity, offers an optimal
environment for investigating the changes in vegetation cover dynamics. Our study utilizes
advanced technologies such as GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and Remote sensing to
analyze the transformations that have taken place over the course of a decade.
The complex relationship between human activities and the environment has been the focus
of extensive research and worry. As the global community grapples with swift urbanization,
population expansion, and economic progress, the effects on natural ecosystems are becoming
more evident. A crucial element of this impact is the alteration of vegetation cover, which plays a
significant role in maintaining the ecological equilibrium of our planet.Land serves as the foundation for all human activities and provides the necessary materials for
these activities. As the most crucial natural resource, its utilization by humans results in different
'Land uses,' which are determined by both human activities and the physical characteristics of the
land.
The utilization of land is impacted by human needs and environmental factors. In countries
like India, rapid population growth and the emphasis on extensive resource exploitation can lead
to significant land degradation, adversely affecting the region's land cover.
Therefore, human intervention has significantly influenced land use patterns over many
centuries, evolving its structure over time and space. In the present era, these changes have
accelerated due to factors such as agriculture and urbanization. Information regarding land use and
cover is essential for various planning and management tasks related to the Earth's surface,
providing crucial environmental data for scientific, resource management, policy purposes, and
diverse human activities.
Accurate understanding of land use and cover is imperative for the development planning
of any area. Consequently, a wide range of professionals, including earth system scientists, land
and water managers, and urban planners, are interested in obtaining data on land use and cover
changes, conversion trends, and other related patterns. The spatial dimensions of land use and
cover support policymakers and scientists in making well-informed decisions, as alterations in
these patterns indicate shifts in economic and social conditions. Monitoring such changes with the
help of Advanced technologies like Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems is
crucial for coordinated efforts across different administrative levels. Advanced technologies like
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
9
Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
structure of plant communities across different temporal and spatial scales. These changes can
occur natural.
ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, and GDPR: Best Practices for Implementation and...PECB
Denis is a dynamic and results-driven Chief Information Officer (CIO) with a distinguished career spanning information systems analysis and technical project management. With a proven track record of spearheading the design and delivery of cutting-edge Information Management solutions, he has consistently elevated business operations, streamlined reporting functions, and maximized process efficiency.
Certified as an ISO/IEC 27001: Information Security Management Systems (ISMS) Lead Implementer, Data Protection Officer, and Cyber Risks Analyst, Denis brings a heightened focus on data security, privacy, and cyber resilience to every endeavor.
His expertise extends across a diverse spectrum of reporting, database, and web development applications, underpinned by an exceptional grasp of data storage and virtualization technologies. His proficiency in application testing, database administration, and data cleansing ensures seamless execution of complex projects.
What sets Denis apart is his comprehensive understanding of Business and Systems Analysis technologies, honed through involvement in all phases of the Software Development Lifecycle (SDLC). From meticulous requirements gathering to precise analysis, innovative design, rigorous development, thorough testing, and successful implementation, he has consistently delivered exceptional results.
Throughout his career, he has taken on multifaceted roles, from leading technical project management teams to owning solutions that drive operational excellence. His conscientious and proactive approach is unwavering, whether he is working independently or collaboratively within a team. His ability to connect with colleagues on a personal level underscores his commitment to fostering a harmonious and productive workplace environment.
Date: May 29, 2024
Tags: Information Security, ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, Artificial Intelligence, GDPR
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Find out more about ISO training and certification services
Training: ISO/IEC 27001 Information Security Management System - EN | PECB
ISO/IEC 42001 Artificial Intelligence Management System - EN | PECB
General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) - Training Courses - EN | PECB
Webinars: https://pecb.com/webinars
Article: https://pecb.com/article
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For more information about PECB:
Website: https://pecb.com/
LinkedIn: https://www.linkedin.com/company/pecb/
Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/PECBInternational/
Slideshare: http://www.slideshare.net/PECBCERTIFICATION
This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
Strategies for Effective Upskilling is a presentation by Chinwendu Peace in a Your Skill Boost Masterclass organisation by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan on 08th and 09th June 2024 from 1 PM to 3 PM on each day.
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering.pptxDenish Jangid
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering
Syllabus
Chapter-1
Introduction to objective, scope and outcome the subject
Chapter 2
Introduction: Scope and Specialization of Civil Engineering, Role of civil Engineer in Society, Impact of infrastructural development on economy of country.
Chapter 3
Surveying: Object Principles & Types of Surveying; Site Plans, Plans & Maps; Scales & Unit of different Measurements.
Linear Measurements: Instruments used. Linear Measurement by Tape, Ranging out Survey Lines and overcoming Obstructions; Measurements on sloping ground; Tape corrections, conventional symbols. Angular Measurements: Instruments used; Introduction to Compass Surveying, Bearings and Longitude & Latitude of a Line, Introduction to total station.
Levelling: Instrument used Object of levelling, Methods of levelling in brief, and Contour maps.
Chapter 4
Buildings: Selection of site for Buildings, Layout of Building Plan, Types of buildings, Plinth area, carpet area, floor space index, Introduction to building byelaws, concept of sun light & ventilation. Components of Buildings & their functions, Basic concept of R.C.C., Introduction to types of foundation
Chapter 5
Transportation: Introduction to Transportation Engineering; Traffic and Road Safety: Types and Characteristics of Various Modes of Transportation; Various Road Traffic Signs, Causes of Accidents and Road Safety Measures.
Chapter 6
Environmental Engineering: Environmental Pollution, Environmental Acts and Regulations, Functional Concepts of Ecology, Basics of Species, Biodiversity, Ecosystem, Hydrological Cycle; Chemical Cycles: Carbon, Nitrogen & Phosphorus; Energy Flow in Ecosystems.
Water Pollution: Water Quality standards, Introduction to Treatment & Disposal of Waste Water. Reuse and Saving of Water, Rain Water Harvesting. Solid Waste Management: Classification of Solid Waste, Collection, Transportation and Disposal of Solid. Recycling of Solid Waste: Energy Recovery, Sanitary Landfill, On-Site Sanitation. Air & Noise Pollution: Primary and Secondary air pollutants, Harmful effects of Air Pollution, Control of Air Pollution. . Noise Pollution Harmful Effects of noise pollution, control of noise pollution, Global warming & Climate Change, Ozone depletion, Greenhouse effect
Text Books:
1. Palancharmy, Basic Civil Engineering, McGraw Hill publishers.
2. Satheesh Gopi, Basic Civil Engineering, Pearson Publishers.
3. Ketki Rangwala Dalal, Essentials of Civil Engineering, Charotar Publishing House.
4. BCP, Surveying volume 1
This presentation includes basic of PCOS their pathology and treatment and also Ayurveda correlation of PCOS and Ayurvedic line of treatment mentioned in classics.
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
हिंदी वर्णमाला पीपीटी, hindi alphabet PPT presentation, hindi varnamala PPT, Hindi Varnamala pdf, हिंदी स्वर, हिंदी व्यंजन, sikhiye hindi varnmala, dr. mulla adam ali, hindi language and literature, hindi alphabet with drawing, hindi alphabet pdf, hindi varnamala for childrens, hindi language, hindi varnamala practice for kids, https://www.drmullaadamali.com
A workshop hosted by the South African Journal of Science aimed at postgraduate students and early career researchers with little or no experience in writing and publishing journal articles.
Main Java[All of the Base Concepts}.docxadhitya5119
This is part 1 of my Java Learning Journey. This Contains Custom methods, classes, constructors, packages, multithreading , try- catch block, finally block and more.
How to Fix the Import Error in the Odoo 17Celine George
An import error occurs when a program fails to import a module or library, disrupting its execution. In languages like Python, this issue arises when the specified module cannot be found or accessed, hindering the program's functionality. Resolving import errors is crucial for maintaining smooth software operation and uninterrupted development processes.
4. “
”
A research hypothesis is a
statement of expectation or
prediction that will be tested by
research.
4
5. “
”
Hypotheses propose a relationship between two or
more variables. An independent variable is
something the researcher changes or controls. A
dependent variable is something the researcher
observes and measures.
5
6. Examples
● “Students who receive counselling will show a
greater increase in creativity than students not
receiving counselling”
● “the automobile A is performing as well as
automobile B.”
6
8. ● A theory in the natural sciences is
more “powerful” and abstract
than a hypothesis.
● It provides generalizations about
relationships between variables in
the form of an interrelated,
coherent set of ideas that have
been supported by considerable
empirical investigation.
Theories
● Another way of expressing this is
that a theory is a hypothesis that
has been tested (supported by
considerable empirical
evidence/not falsified) and
generalized so that it can be
useful in explaining, predicting
and controlling phenomena.
8
9. Criteria for “Good” Theories
Power of explanation
● the sources of the data
employed,
● the specificity of the theory,
and
● its generalizability—its ability
to connect a wide range of
phenomena.
Irrelevant details are left out
and relevant details are
included
● To give a simple example of what is
meant by “relevant” and “irrelevant”
here, in ancient times people found
out that they could create fire by
rubbing pieces of dry wood
together.
9
10. Criteria for “Good” Theories
Parsimony
● an explanation of a situation
or thing is created with the
fewest assumptions.
● The Law of Parsimony
advocates choosing the
simplest scientific
explanation that fits the
evidence.
Predictive accuracy
● By this I mean that a theory: (a)
avoids making predictions that do
not hold true,
● and (b) survives critical tests that
could have shown it to be false.
10
11. Testability/falsification
This is the criterion that the
better a theory enables
predictions to be made that
can lead to a demonstration
that the theory is not correct,
the better is the theory.
11
Criteria for “Good” Theories
12. Consistency with pre-existing
knowledge—even if the theory
may show that an earlier theory
was wrong
Certainly the ability of a theory to be accepted by
one’s peers depends to a great extent on its being in
harmony with what is already accepted as legitimate
(true) scientific knowledge.
12
Criteria for “Good” Theories
13. Laws
13
Laws can be said to be theories that:
o have been subject to extensive testing,
o have been found to apply over a wide
range of time and space and to be
correct in every possible situation—or at
least are judged to have an extremely
low likelihood of being found to be
incorrect,
o appear to be in coherence with existing
knowledge, and are widely accepted by
the scientific community.
In other words, laws are
well established
generalizations about
regularities between
phenomena (objects,
events, relationships) in
the physical world in the
form of an interrelated,
coherent set of ideas.
15. “
”
we considered natural science to be
“a special way of looking at the
universe—a rational approach to
discovering, generating, testing, and
sharing true and reliable knowledge
about physical reality.”
15
16. 16
In order to provide such
knowledge, science must
have means and methods
for justifying its
statements—its facts,
hypotheses, theories and
laws.
Scientific knowledge is
distinguished from belief, no
matter how true or strongly
felt that belief may be, by its
processes of justification and
by its being accepted as
such by the scientific
community.
17. 17
Verification (Deductive and
Inductive Reasoning in Science)
Verification deals with the confirmation (or disconfirmation)
of a statement via its being tested. But many scientific
statements cannot be tested via direct observation.
18. 18
Deduction
The underlying idea of deduction is very simple: one deduces a
statement from other, given statements.
If the given statements, the premises, are true and the reasoning is
valid, so are the conclusions of a valid deductive argument;
deduction is truth preserving.
19. 19
Induction
Induction is radically different from deduction. It deals with
drawing conclusions from data/observations and is the primary
logical method upon which science is based.
A fundamental presupposition that underlies induction is that the
universe is ordered and governed by general laws.
20. 20
Falsification
Falsification is the paradoxical idea
that a statement cannot be scientific
if it does not admit consideration of
the possibility of its being false.
21. 21
Falsification
The reasoning is that for a statement
to be falsifiable (and therefore
scientific), it must be possible to make
an observation which would refute the
statement—that would show it to be
false.
22. Acceptance
Justification, no matter whether via verification
and/or falsification is only part of what is required
in order for a scientific statement to be accepted
by the scientific community.
23. Peer Review
Over and above the perspectives on justification
and acceptance provided so far, it is also
necessary to consider the influence of one’s
peers, the community of scientists.
24. Peer Review
Since scientific knowledge is, at least in principle,
public property, scientific statements are
evaluated by others, not just by one’s self
meaning that the statements must be found to
survive critical study and testing by others.