Environmental Risk & Impacts of Abiotic resource Exploitation

1. By Ahmed Mohamed Khedr

2. ABIOTIC
RESOURCES
Abiotic Resources: Abiotic Resources are resources that are non-living. These
resources fall under the larger category of natural resources which occur naturally
within the environment and aren’t created or produced by humans. Abiotic factors are
nonliving physical and chemical elements within the ecosystem. Resources of abiotic
factors are usually obtained from the atmosphere, lithosphere, and hydrosphere.
Examples of abiotic resources are air, water, sunlight, soil, and minerals.

5. The global demand for material use has seen prolonged growth over the past fve decades. The annual global
extraction of materials has grown from 30.9 billion tonnes in 1970 to 95.1 billion tonnes in 2020, and is
expected to reach 106.6 billion tonnes in 2024 following an annual average growth rate of 2.3%.
Global material extraction, four main material categories, 1970 – 2024, million tonnes.

6. Metal ores – Iron, aluminum, copper and other nonferrous metals accounted for around 9% of global material
extraction (2.7 billion tonnes) in 1970, and this grew slightly to around 10% (9.6 billion tonnes) in 2020. This
represents a yearly average growth of 2.6% and reflects the importance of metals for the construction
industry, energy and transport infrastructure, equipment, manufacturing and for many consumer goods. Iron
ore was the fastest growing metal because of the rising demand for steel in construction activities and the
second wave of urbanization in the Global South. Metals also play a key role for the energy transition to an
intermittent renewable energy system that will rely on massively increased energy transmission infrastructure
(mainly aluminum and copper) and energy storage capacity (cobalt, nickel and lithium). The electrification of
transport and mobility will further add to global metal demand and will require the build-up of metal-recycling
capability.
Non-metallic minerals – These include sand, gravel and clay for construction and industrial purposes and represent
the largest component of material use. They accounted for the highest growth of 3.2% per year on average and
extraction grew from 9.6 billion tonnes in 1970 to 45.3 billion tonnes in 2020 This fivefold increase has been related to
the massive build-up of infrastructure in many parts of the world. The increasing share of non-metallic minerals from
31% to almost 50% of overall global material extraction reflects a major shift in global extraction from biomass to
mineral-based natural resources.

7. Domestic extraction of materials – Top-ten largest extractors in 2020, million tonnes and tonnes per
capita.

8. Top ten net importers of materials, 2020, million tonnes and tonnes per capita.

9. Relative contribution of different types of resources (extraction and processing), the remaining economy (downstream use
of resources in the economy after extraction and processing) and households (impacts of direct emissions and resource
consumption) to global environmental and socioeconomic impacts for 2022.

10. MINING AND THE
ENVIRONMENT

11. Exploration
Environmental impact related to the exploration
phase may include clearing of vegetation for
access, housing or investigations. Vegetation is
often cleared to allow the entry of heavy vehicles
mounted with drilling rigs. Ideally environmental
impacts are minimal during the exploration phase
however many countries require a separate EIA for
the exploratory phase of a mining project because
the impacts of this phase can also be profound. In
many areas indirect impacts such as settlement,
deforestation, poaching or informal mining
commences in the wake of regulated and permitted
exploration.

12. Access road construction
Developing a mine involve amongst other supplying heavy equipment and consumable to the site and shipping out the
processed ore and metals. Access roads are needed to achieve both activities. Constructing the road have commonly
substantial environmental impact especially if it is done in sensitive area or near previously isolated community.
Clearing and site preparation
Mining in remote and undeveloped area requires substantial amount of land clearing for construction of the mine and
plant, housing for project staff, and storage for equipment and consumables. Land clearing has significant
environmental impact. The size of the land to be cleared usually depend on the ore deposit size and shape and the
conditions of the terranes.
Extraction
Once the land has been prepared the mining and plant construction may begin. Mining commonly involve extracting
the ore from the mine through excavation and processing the ore to produce a concentrate of the metal and then
eventually producing the metal mined. Mining project will differ considerably according to the extracting and processing
method which depends on : the type of ore (sulphides, oxides a combination of both), the metal to be extracted, the
depth at which the deposit is buried under the ground, and the terrane conditions. If a deposit is buried deep under the
ground the volume of soil and rock also called ‘overburden or waste rock’ to be removed to access the deposit is
significant. Thus, an underground mine method might be preferred over an open pit mine.
Mine closure and site reclamation
At the end of mining operations, the mine and it associated facilities must be reclaimed and closed. The ultimate goal
is to return the site to conditions that resembles the pre-mining status. Some of the impacts of mining can persist for
decades or even centuries if they are not well managed during mine closure. Using the baseline study, the project
owner need to describe in details each steps of the site restoration and provide information about how it will prevent –
on the long run – after mine closure the release of toxic contaminants to the environment from various mine facilities
(e.g. TSF and pits); the project owner must also describe how funds will be set aside to ensure the cost of reclamation
and closure are paid for as well as monitoring post-closure.

13.  Short summary of common environmental impacts from mining consisting of environmental
impacts on water, air, social impacts, wildlife, and climate.
Water
A significant impact from many mining activities is the impact on water quality and the availability of water. As a
mine can take up a large area, it can change the way water travels within the landscape. Sometimes, rivers need to
be re-routed to not flood the mine. At the same time, groundwater needs to be pumped to also not flood the
mine. By disrupting the landscape and possibly building dams or re-routing rivers and groundwater, the availability
of water can be impacted over long distances downstream from the mine. This can impact flora, fauna, local
communities and other industries.
Impacts on water quality can have possible health implications for local communities, or impact the environment,
flora and fauna. The mine uses large quantities of water that is sometime released to the environment, intentionally
or unintentionally, and depending on its composition it can potentially harm the environment. Water can also, in
contact with waste rock, dissolve minerals and release metals and other harmful elements to the environment.
What elements that can be released to the environment, and the effect, depends on the composition of the rocks.
Acid mine drainage and contaminant leaching
The potential for acid mine drainage is a key question. The answer will determine whether a proposed mining project
is environmentally acceptable. When mined materials (such as the walls of open pits and underground mines, tailings,
waste rock, and heap and dump leach materials) are excavated and exposed to oxygen and water, acid can form if
iron sulfide minerals (especially pyrite, or ‘fools gold’) are abundant and there is an insufficient amount of neutralizing
material to counteract the acid formation.

14. The acid will, in turn, leach or dissolve metals and other contaminants from mined materials and form a solution that is
acidic, high in sulfate, and metal-rich (including elevated concentrations of cadmium, copper, lead, zinc, arsenic, etc.)
Leaching of toxic constituents, such as arsenic, selenium, and metals, can occur even if acidic conditions are not
present. Elevated levels of cyanide and nitrogen compounds (ammonia, nitrate, nitrite) can also be found in waters at
mine sites, from heap leaching and blasting.
Acid drainage and contaminant leaching is the most important source of water quality impacts related to metallic ore
mining.
“HARM TO FISH & OTHER AQUATIC LIFE: If mine waste is acid-generating, the impacts to fish, animals and plants
can be severe. Many streams impacted by acid mine drainage have a pH value of 4 or lower – similar to battery acid.
Plants, animals, and fish are unlikely to survive in streams such as this.
“TOXIC METALS: Acid mine drainage also dissolves toxic metals, such as copper, aluminum, cadmium, arsenic, lead
and mercury, from the surrounding rock. These metals, particularly the iron, may coat the stream bottom with an
orange-red colored slime called yellow boy. Even in very small amounts, metals can be toxic to humans and wildlife.
Carried in water, the metals can travel far, contaminating streams and groundwater for great distances. The impacts to
aquatic life may range from immediate fish kills to sublethal, impacts affecting growth, behavior or the ability to
reproduce.
Erosion of soils and mine wastes into surface waters
For most mining projects, the potential of soil and sediment eroding into and degrading surface water quality is a
serious problem. The ultimate deposition of the sediment may occur in surface waters or it may be deposited within the
floodplains of a stream valley.
Historically, erosion and sedimentation processes have caused the build-up of thick layers of mineral fines and
sediment within regional flood plains and the alteration of aquatic habitat and the loss of storage capacity within
surface waters.

15. Air
Impacts on air quality is, as water, controlled by the way the mine is managed, but also by factors such as climate,
topology, availability of water and composition of rocks. Dust from mining operations or waste can contain harmful
elements such as chemically or radiologically toxic metals, which can have health implications when breathed or
when dust contaminates water sources. A large amount of dust, even if not containing significant amounts of toxic
elements, can also be harmful.
Dust is often controlled by spraying water on haul roads, open pit walls, waste rock piles and so on. In arid climates
with high winds, high temperatures and low precipitation, dust can be hard to control due to water evaporating
quickly. Special liquids and solutions, which does not evaporate as quickly, can be used in these cases.
Negative impact on air quality can also come from gaseous emissions from smelters, processing plants, machinery,
or power plants. These can contain heavy metals or acid solutions which can be harmful to the environment. These
emissions can often be controlled by installing filters and flue gas cleaners.

16. Wildlife
The impact on wildlife can be large depending on factors such as location and size of the mine, availability of water,
safety measures etc. Different types of wildlife react in different ways to mining, some may be heavily impacted and
some not. Wildlife documentation is important in the baseline study, and continued monitoring of certain species can
give more information on how the environment is influenced by the mine than for example monitoring metal content
in rivers. Protecting animals from the mine operations, for example from trucks, open pits, and shafts, can be done by
installing safety measures such as fences.
Some species may be endemic and sensitive to even very little disturbance. Even though some species have a higher
degree to which they can tolerate human competition, it does not mean directly that it is acceptable to invade their
space without good mitigation and control measure in place.
Climate change considerations
Every a project that has the potential to change the global carbon budget should include an assessment of a project’s
carbon impact. Large-scale mining projects have the potential to alter global carbon in at least the following ways:
Lost CO2 uptake by forests and vegetation that is cleared. Many large-scale mining projects are proposed in heavily
forested areas of tropical regions that are critical for absorbing atmospheric
carbon dioxide (CO2) and Some mining projects propose long-term or even
permanent destruction of tropical forests.
CO2 emitted by machines (e.g., diesel-powered heavy vehicles) involved in extracting and transporting ore, vehicles
that will be needed during the life of the mining project.
CO2 emitted by the processing of ore into metal (for example, by pyro-metallurgical versus hydro metal lurgical
techniques). An example is found in an assessment by CSIRO minerals of Australia which used the Life Cycle
Assessment methodology to estimate the life cycle emissions of GHGS from copper and nickel

17. Climate Change Impacts in Africa
Different parts of the globe have been experiencing the negative impacts associated with climate
change including more frequent wildfires, longer periods of drought, and an increase in the number,
duration, and intensity of tropical storms. These effects though tough on developing countries, have
also been experienced in the developed world.
For instance, the Southern and Central Europe are seeing more frequent heat waves, forest fires, and
droughts, while the Mediterranean area is becoming drier and Northern Europe is getting
significantly wetter, making it vulnerable to winter foods.
With respect to SSA, it is worth pointing out the general characteristics of the African climate, which
is shaped by the inter-tropical convergence zone, seasonal monsoons in East and West Africa, and
the EI Niño/ La Nina Southern Oscillation (ENSO) in the South.
The ENSO and the seasonal Monsoons influence temperatures and precipitation across the
continent including extreme events in metrological droughts.
Africa is the most vulnerable continent to climate change impacts, as it is expected to severely
disrupt water and food systems, public health, and agricultural livelihoods not to mention causing
enhanced droughts, sea-level rise, and changes in the incidence and prevalence of vector-borne
disease. These projected changes are expected to exacerbate already high levels of food and water
insecurity, poverty, and poor health and undermine economic development.

18. Social Impacts of Mining
Mining activities are associated with various social, economic and environmental impacts. Economically, they
contribute to government revenue and employ a significant number of people. There are however some social
negative impacts associated with mining including violence, child labour, escalation of gender inequalities,
health and environmental effects including deforestation and pollution. In this section, the focus will be on
artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM). However, environmental impacts of industrial sand mining will be
explored.
Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining in Africa ASM has attracted a lot of attention in recent years following the
increasing number of people relying on this activity in developing countries. Basically, ASM involves miners who carry
out mining activities using their own resources and tools. These miners work independently from mining companies.
Whereas, artisanal mining focuses on substance miners, small-scale mining on the other hand includes enterprises or
individuals that employ workers for mining. The main characteristic of ASM is the use of hand tools to carry out mining
activities.
Child Labour
One of the key issues that need to be tackled in ASM is child labour. Indeed, child labour is not only associated with
ASM but also other sectors and as such there have been global efforts to tackle it both at national, regional and
international level. Internationally, in addition to 12th June, a day launched by the International Labour Organization
(ILO) in 2002, as the World Day Against Child Labour, there is also a special day of 16th June celebrated on the African
continent as the Day of the African Child. The origin of this day dates back as far as 1991 when it was first initiated by
the Organization of African Unity in honor of those who participated in the Soweto uprising—and it has since then
been used to raise awareness of the need for improvement in not only the education but also welfare of the African
children.

19. Health and Safety
There has been an increasing number of health and safety issues in various mining communities. Taking the example of
ASM, most miners operate without basic protective equipment such as gloves, boots and goggles. ASM by its nature
involves the use of hand tools and rudimentary methods to extract minerals. In this respect, besides lack of protective
gears, ASM is associated with the use of dangerous chemicals such as mercury; poorly constructed shafts/tunnels; poor
waste management leading to contamination and diseases—all of which pose health and safety risks. In AGM for
instance, miners still use rudimentary methods such as amalgamation to extract gold. Gold amalgamation necessitates
the use of mercury, which has various health and environmental impacts. Gold amalgamation is one of the oldest forms
of extracting gold: mercury is added to silver and gold to form an amalgam (paste) and it amalgamates all metals
except iron and platinum.
Violence and Conficts
ASM has in the past benefted the local people in resource-rich countries. However, it has in recent years been
characterized with violence especially in instances where foreign companies attempt to take over the mining areas
where ASM miners operate or in the case of Ghana, where Chinese migrants attempted to dominate AGM . For
instance, in 2013, ASM in Ghana attracted Chinese illegal miners who got into confict with the local miners.33 An
estimate of about 50,000 Chinese illegal miners mostly exclusively from Shanglin County in Guangxi province were
involved in AGM in Ghana. Consequently, there was a deportation of over 4000 Chinese citizens who were involved in
ASM.

20. The Environmental Impacts of Lithium and Cobalt Mining
There is no doubt that lithium and cobalt play a huge
role in modern societies, as both elements are
essential components of many renewable energy
sources such as solar panels, wind turbines, and
electric cars.
Demand for electric vehicles is likely to continue to
increase in the coming decades, as the apparatus to
switch to more sustainable forms of transportation
becomes clearer and clearer.
Not only for EVs, but the battery demand for
consumer electronics will continue to increase as well,
up to 2.5 terawatt hours by 2030. However, we cannot
talk about the green transition without taking the
environmental impacts of lithium and cobalt mining
into account.
Though emissions deriving from mining these two
elements are lower than those deriving from fossil
fuels production, the extraction methods for lithium
and cobalt can be very energy intensive leading to air
and water pollution, land degradation, and potential
for groundwater contamination.

21. Despite the importance of EV markets and growing battery technology in controlling the world’s emissions, it is up to
society to figure out a more practical and efficient way of extracting these resources. It is important to note that fossil
fuel mining, including lithium and cobalt mining, is estimated to be responsible for the emission of around 34 billion
tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) worldwide annually. About 45% of it is from coal, 35% from oil, and 20%
from gas.
Relative to fossil fuels, Cobalt mining is only responsible for around 1.5 million tonnes of carbon dioxide (CO2e)
equivalent. For Lithium mining, it is estimated to be in a similar range at around 1.3+ million tonnes of carbon
annually, with every tonne of mined lithium equating to 15 tonnes of CO2 into the air. Thus, the amount of carbon
emitted is significantly less than fossil fuels, and a necessary middle ground should be considered in society’s transition
to further renewables technologies.
The Environmental Impact of Lithium
Lithium is typically mined through a process called brine mining, which involves extracting lithium from underground
saltwater reserves. The risks in polluting local water sources arise here, with examples in Solar de Uyuni and Solar de
Atacama. This process involves pumping saltwater to the surface, where it is evaporated to remove the lithium and
other minerals. Despite being relatively energy-intensive, this remains one of the most cost effective ways to mine
lithium nowadays. Unfortunately, these toxic metals can contaminate water sources, threatening not only humans but
also animal biodiversity.
Furthermore, some of the metals contained in EV batteries are highly damaging even in small quantities. Since a large
majority of them are disposed of in landfills, leaks of environmental contaminants are quite frequent. Often, these leaks
lead to underground fires, which release even more pollutants into the atmosphere. When particles of hazardous
metals contained in batteries – like arsenic, cadmium, chromium, cobalt, and copper – enter the human respiratory
system, they can cause a variety of health problems.

22. The Environmental Impact of Cobalt
Cobalt is mined through surface and underground mining. Surface mining is the process that involves removing the
top layer of soil or rock to access minerals or metals, while underground mining involves digging tunnels and shafts to
access minerals or metals located deeper below the surface.
Unlike Lithium where the supply is plentiful, there is more of an effort to meet the demand logistics for cobalt. The
Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) produces 60-70% of the world’s Cobalt output. However, the conditions of the
mines in which Cobalt is produced has generated significant controversy in the media and abroad. Still, the average,
daily $3+ wage for miners is significantly more than the average wage in the country (where 73% of the population live
below $1.9 a day). A main reason why workers will continue to mine in these fields is the above average pay and thus
the associated economic incentives resulting from artisanal mines. It is currently estimated that between 140,000-
200,000 people work as artisanal miners in the DRC.
Nonetheless, the risks of cobalt mining on the human population in Congo is well documented, where mines are often
operated in dangerous and polluted conditions. The mining and refining processes are often labor-intensive practices
and are associated with a variety of health problems as a result of accidents, overexertion, exposure to toxic chemicals
and gasses. On top of all this, violence is common throughout centered around racism, discrimination, and worker
abuse. The miners, known locally as creseurs, are so economically reliant on this informal economy that these
dangerous conditions cannot afford full consideration.
The environmental costs of cobalt mining activities are also substantial. Southern regions of the DRC are not only
home to cobalt and copper, but also large amounts of uranium. In mining regions, scientists have made note of high
radioactivity levels. In addition, mineral mining, similar to other industrial mining efforts, often produces pollution that
leaches into neighboring rivers and water sources. Dust from pulverized rock is known to cause breathing problems for
local communities as well.

23. Lithium sources and exploitation.
a, Active lithium mining from brine facilities and
corresponding production capacities in 2022 for
the following salars: Clayton Valley (USA); Lake
Zabayu (or Zabuye), Dongtai Salt Lake and Xitai
Salt Lake (China); Salar de Atacama 1 and 2
(Chile) and Salar del Hombre Muerto and Salar de
Olaroz (Argentina). The inset zooms in on the
Lithium Triangle in South America, which has the
largest identified deposits in continental brines
worldwide, but are not currently exploited are also
shown: Salar de Uyuni (Bolivia) and
geothermal fields in the Rhine region (France–
Germany). LCE: Lithium carbonate equivalent.
b, Schematic representation of evaporitic
technology. The first step is brine pumping from
underground reservoirs. Brines are poured into
large shallow open air ponds, where over 90% of
the original water content is lost via evaporation
accelerated by solar radiation and wind. LiCl
concentration increases gradually and salts from
other cations crystallize in the ponds as saturation
is reached. Concentrated brines then enter a
refining plant for crystallization of the final
product (usually lithium carbonate). Fresh water
and chemicals are used at several steps of

24. Environmental impact of phosphate mining and beneficiation:
Phosphorus is common within geological materials. The average continental crust contains 0.27% P2O5. Phosphorus is
the primary resources to produce fertilizer and phosphorous-based products. Phosphorus is neither substitutable nor
recyclable, therefore, the total demand must be provided through the mining, beneficiation and chemical processing
of phosphate ores. The key to understanding the association between environmental pollution and phosphate rocks
lies in appreciating the mining and processing effect of phosphate ores.
Phosphorus is normally produced by mining and beneficiation of Phosphate ores. Mines produce large amounts of
waste including toxic metals and radioactive elements.4 The mining and beneficiation process results in the majority of
these hazardous elements being lost either to waste disposal or to the environment, mainly soil, water, atmosphere
and human food chain.5,6 Apatite is the dominant mineral in phosphate ores. It may occur as carbonate-fluorapatite
[Ca5 (PO4, CO3)3 (OH, F)] in sedimentary rocks and as hydroxyl-fluorapatite [Ca5 (PO4)3 (OH)] in igneous rocks.

25. Average phosphorus and toxic heavy metal concentrations in rock phosphate from different origin

26. Radioactivity elements in phosphate rock
The radioactivity of phosphate rock was probably first observed in 1908, when the
British physicist R. Strutt found that samples of phosphorite were many times more
radioactive than the average rocks of the Earth’s crust.23 The dominant radioactivity
detected in phosphate rocks are uranium, thorium and their decay products in
equilibrium with their respective parent elements in the ore.24 The Uranium series
includes 238U, 234Th, 234U; 230Th; 226Ra, 222Rn, 210Pb, 210Bi and 210Po, Thorium series includes
232Th; 228Ra, 228Ac; 228Th, 224Ra, 220Rn, 212Pb, 212Bi. Of all the radionuclides in phosphate rock,
226Ra is of particular interest because of its long half-life, radiotoxicity and its relative
physical and biological mobility. The nuclide is of further importance as the parent
nuclide of the gaseous 222Rn which, along with its solid decay products, constitutes a
significant source of radiation exposure. Concentrations of 226Ra in phosphate rock are
reported to vary, covering a range of 1-2 Bq/g.25‒29 Most of the 226Ra in the ore ends up in
the waste phosphogypsum during the production of phosphate fertilizers. The
concentration of 226Ra in these wastes is reported to be nearly 1Bq/g.

27. Beneficiation effect
There are two types of phosphate processing: The wet processing and dry thermal processing. The wet
processing, done with Sulfuric acid, is the most used method for more than 90% of the phosphate
fertilizer production. The reaction of calcium phosphate with sulfuric acid leads to different products
depending upon the relative amount of Sulfuric acid added to the phosphate ore (Figure 2): the first
reaction used produce SSP; the second reaction used to produce WPA; the third reaction used to
produces TSP; if phosphoric acid is neutralized by ammonia, the fourth reaction can lead to the
production of MAP and DAP etc. Phosphogypsum is the byproduct in wet processing. Generally, 4-5 tons
tons of phosphogypsum are produced per ton of phosphoric acid (P2O5).

28. In the wet process method, 226Ra is co-precipitated with the gypsum, while 238U and 232Th
follow the Phosphorus into the phosphoric acid, which is then used to manufacture various
fertilizer products.24 In general, about 80% of the 226Ra, 30% of the 232Th and 14% of the
238U is left in the phosphogypsum. 238U and 232Th become enriched in the fertilizer to
about 86% of their original value.

29. Phosphate Mining Wastes at Abu Tartur Mine Area, Western Desert of Egypt
Abu-Tartur phosphate mine is
the largest phosphate mine in
Egypt.
The mine located adjacent to
Abu Tartur plateau, some 50 Km
to the west of El Kharga Oasis,
Western Desert of Egypt.
The estimated phosphate ore
reserves in the area may reach
up to billion tons.

30. Environmental Adverse Impacts:
The adverse impacts on the environmental that is commonly connected with mining activities appear to be
due mainly to poor management of the different types of mining wastes. Mismanagement of tailings can result in the
discharge into the environment of wastes that rich in toxic heavy metals. Alteration in the water table, acid mine
drainage, and potential surface and ground water pollution are common environmental challenges in mine areas. Dust
emissions during loading, en route, and unloading of the ore, and during crushing affect the quality of urban air in the
vicinity of the mine area. Chemicals and reagents added during the beneficiation of the ore can have adverse
environmental impacts as well as impose health risks if not appropriately handled and controlled. Inappropriate
disposal of solid and liquid mine wastes may lead to leaching of pollutants from disposal areas and can result in soil
and groundwater contamination. Flooding caused by tailings dams failure and dump heaps collapse can contaminate
both surface and groundwater. Loss of surface vegetation and consequent soil erosion in mining areas can have
serious long-term ecological consequences.
The impact of the beneficiation process depends largely on the chemicals and reagents added to the original ore to fit
the chemical and physical properties of the end product rather than on the geological sit up of the phosphate ore
body and the surrounding rocks. In all cases, land and water resource consumption and/or degradation is a common
issue for both mining and beneficiation activities.
The impacts of crushing, grinding, and sorting at early stages of beneficiation process produce airborne particulates
and deteriorate the air quality. At Abu Tartur mine area dust storms occur all year long, the reported values of total
suspended particulate are significantly greater than the 120 mgm-3 maximum concentrations permissible (Ahmed
2003). Radioactive Phosphatic dust can be precipitated at and around the mine areas in the form of wet precipitation
and/or dry deposition. The radioactive dust can be accumulated on surface soils, become bio-available by animals and
plants and enter the food chain. Radon gas produced from phosphate piles and tailings is of concern and can be
considered as a potential hazard (UNSCEAR 1993, IAEA 2004).

31. Human health Risk:
Adverse health impacts associated with phosphate mining are stemmed from the inhalation of
particulate emissions and the intake of heavy metals, metalloids, non-metals and their oxides, either
from the mining activates or from the application of the phosphatic fertilizers. Radiation hazards are also
of concern as the phosphates of the Abu Tartur mine are proved to have Naturally Occurring Radioactive
Materials (NORM) due to thorium and uranium decay series 232Th and 238U (Khater et al. 2001), and
are considered as a radiation health hazard (Makweba and Holm 1993, Abbady et al. 2005). Air
particulates emissions produced during processing and transportation of phosphate ore represent a
potential health hazard; they might cause respiratory problems at least to the miners (Khater et al. 2004).
Mining of phosphate rocks and application of phosphatic fertilizers are major sources of heavy metals
that enter the environment (Pinsky 1988). Phosphate mine wastes can cause environmental hazards as
they contain significantly toxic elements, such as Th, U, REE, As, Cd, V, Sb, Zn, Cr, Ni, Cu, etc, depending
on the origin of the phosphate deposit, the mining method, and the beneficiation technology used.