2. Research Basic Science: Obstetrics www.AJOG.org
respect to vascular physiologic develop-
FIGURE 1
ment, they are known to regulate the ex-
Immunohistochemical distribution of ESR2
pression of multiple vasodilator and va-
soconstrictor proteins.19 ESR2 has been
shown to be critical in maintenance of
normal vascular physiologic develop-
ment, where ESR2 knock-out mice dem-
onstrate significant systolic and diastolic
hypertension.20 Likewise, within endo-
thelial cell cultures from other organs,
both estradiol and an ESR2-specific
agonist have been found to upregu-
late cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inde-
pendently, which leads to increased sub-
strate (ie, PGH2) for the biosynthesis of
the various downstream prostanoids.21-23
We previously demonstrated a
method of isolating endothelial cells
from the fetoplacental vessels; of the 2
estrogen receptors, these cells express
only ESR2.22 The role of estrogen and
ESR2 in balancing vascular prostanoid
biosynthesis remains unclear, both
within the fetoplacental compartment
and within others. Our objective was to
A, Villous endothelial cells demonstrate positivity for CD31, an endothelial cell–specific antigen. B, determine the role of ESR2 in the medi-
These same villous endothelial cells exhibit endogenous expression of ESR2 within the nuclei ation of fetoplacental vascular function,
(magnified inset shows nuclear staining). C, In contrast, there is no evidence of ESR1 expression and we hypothesized that ESR2 upregu-
within term placental sections. D, Breast cancer tissue was used as a positive control for this ESR1 lates COX-2. This, in turn, may lead to
antibody. Of note, there was also positive staining of ESR2 within the nuclei of villous syncytiotro- an alteration in the proper PGI2:TXA2
phoblast. ratio in an in vivo setting, which poten-
Su. ESR2 and villous endothelial cells. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2009. tially leads to a vicious cycle of vessel dys-
function and injury.
ceptors in target cells.8 Although PGE2 tional age–matched normal neonates.15
and PGF2 can contribute to vascular Furthermore, placental TXA2 produc- M ATERIALS AND M ETHODS
phenotype, PGI2 and TXA2 appear to tion is increased in chronic placental in- Cellular isolation and culture
play more vital roles within vascular sufficiency states.16 A balance between Human placental villous endothelial cell
physiology.9 total vascular PGI2 and TXA2 may very isolation was performed, as previously
Although platelet production of TXA2 well regulate the fetoplacental vasculature. described, after approval by the institu-
is well established, recent data have dem- Within the human vasculature, estro- tional review board at Northwestern
onstrated endothelial cell– derived syn- gen plays a vital role in blood vessel University and patient consent.22,24,25
thesis of this mediator.10-13 With the homeostasis. During pregnancy, the Cells were isolated from placentas from
ability of the vasculature itself to synthe- human placenta produces dramatic uncomplicated pregnancies immedi-
size both vasoconstricting and vasodilat- amounts of the various estrogens (ie, es- ately after delivery. None of the subjects
ing mediators, an imbalance between tradiol, estrone, estriol). Estrogens affect were exposed to aspirin or other nonste-
total TXA2 and PGI2 may lead to inap- numerous basic cellular functions that roidal medications throughout preg-
propriate vasoconstriction and endothe- include gene expression, cellular prolif- nancy. Immunofluorescence confirmed
lial cell and platelet activation. For in- eration, and cellular differentiation. purity of the cells (data not shown);
stance, PGI2 limits the vasoconstrictive Their function occurs by activation of 1 based on previous data, primary cells
response to TXA2 within the cardiovas- or both of 2 estrogen receptors (estrogen were used only through the fifth passage
cular system.14 From an obstetric per- receptor-alpha [ESR1] and estrogen re- to avoid changes in phenotype.25
spective, neonatal PGI2 production is ceptor-beta [ESR2]).17,18 These estrogen Cells were cultured and treated with
lower in those neonates with intrauter- receptors are expressed in a wide variety the use of phenol red-free media that was
ine growth restriction because of chronic of tissue that includes endothelial cells supplemented with 5% fetal bovine se-
placental insufficiency than in gesta- and vascular smooth muscle cells. With rum, bovine brain extract with heparin,
427.e2 American Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology APRIL 2009
3. www.AJOG.org Basic Science: Obstetrics Research
epidermal growth factor, hydrocorti- burg, MD). Specific oligodeoxynucleotide performed after completion of all auto-
sone, and gentamicin/amphotericin B primers for COX-2 were synthesized based radiographic studies with ImageJ soft-
(Lonza, Walkersville, MD). Cells were on its published cDNA sequence (F: ware (National Institutes of Health, Be-
starved in serum-free medium and 5=-GAATCATTTGAAGAACTTACAG- thesda, MD).
treated with vehicle (ethyl alcohol GAG – 3=; R: 5=-GAGGCTTTTCTACCA-
1:1000; Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO), GAAGG – 3=). Primers against ESR2, aro- RNA interference
estradiol (10–11 to 10– 6 mol/L; Sigma-Al- matase, and the constitutively expressed RNA oligonucleotides that were directed
drich), the ESR2-specific agonist diaryl- 36B4 were also used as described in previ- against ESR2 and a mismatch negative
propionitrile (10–11to 10– 6 mol/L; Tocris ous reports.26-28 Primer specificity was control small interfering RNA (siRNA)
Bioscience, Ellisville, MO), or lipopoly- confirmed by single peaks demonstrated were purchased from Invitrogen. Pla-
saccharide (from Escherichia coli 026:B6 by dissociation curves after amplification cental endothelial cells were cultured in
100 ng/mL; Sigma-Aldrich). of cDNA and a lack of amplification of media as previously described, but
All experiments were performed on at genomic DNA. lacked gentamicin/amphotericin B. Cells
least 3 representative subject samples, Real-time quantitative polymerase were plated at a density of 4.0 106 cells
with each repeated in triplicate, with the chain reaction (PCR) was used to deter- per 10-cm dish 1 day before transfection
use of cells between the first and fifth pas- mine the relative amounts of each tran- to achieve approximately 30-50% con-
sage. The results of all the experiments script with the use of the DNA-binding fluence at the time of transfection. On
were pooled; Western blots demonstrate dye SYBR green (Applied Biosystems, the day of transfection, the RNAiMAX
representative images from 1 selected Foster City, CA) and the ABI Prism lipofectamine-based reagent (Invitro-
subject. 7900HT Detection System (Applied Bio- gen) was combined in conjunction with
systems). Cycling conditions started at 200 nmol/L siRNA duplexes that were
Primary antibodies 50°C for 2 minutes followed by 95°C for diluted in Opti-Mem I (Invitrogen) and
The following antibodies were used 10 minutes, then 40 cycles of 95°C for 15 applied to the cells. Six hours after the
for immunohistochemistry: monoclonal seconds and 60°C for 1 minute. The cycle start of transfection, complete growth
antibodies against ESR1 (Dako, Carpin- threshold (Ct) was placed at a set level at medium without antibiotics was added,
teria, CA) and endothelial cell-specific which the exponential increase in PCR and cells were allowed to recover and
antigen CD31 (Dako); and polyclonal amplification was approximately parallel proliferate. Of note, additional controls
antibody against ESR2 (BioGenex, San between all samples. Relative fold- were performed simultaneously on cells
Ramon, CA). For immunoblotting, the change was calculated by a comparison from 3 of the subjects. These controls in-
following antibodies were used: mono- of Ct values between the target gene and cluded cells that were exposed only to
clonal antibodies against beta-actin 36B4 as the reference guide. The 2– Ct Opti-Mem I media and cells undergoing
(Sigma-Aldrich), ESR2 (Millipore, Bil- method was used to analyze these rela- mock transfection with exposure to
lerica, MA), and COX-2 (Cell Signaling tive changes in gene expression.29 RNAiMAX lipid reagent in the absence
Technology, Danvers, MA). of RNAi oligos. Cells were starved over-
Immunohistochemistry Protein isolation and immunoblotting night, followed by treatment with vehicle
Placentas from uncomplicated pregnan- Placental endothelial cells were lysed or estradiol (10–7 mol/L) for 24 hours.
cies were obtained after delivery and with the use of Mammalian Protein Ex- This was timed to allow for RNA and
fixed, paraffin-embedded, and processed traction Reagent (M-PER; Pierce, Rock- protein isolation at 48 and 72 hours, re-
by the Pathology Core Facility at North- ford, IL). Protein concentrations were spectively, from the start of transfection.
western University. Antigen retrieval determined by colorimetric BCA Protein
was performed with citrate buffer, and Assay (Pierce); equal concentrations Enzyme immunoassay
the primary antibodies that were de- were loaded in each well. Samples were Villous endothelial cells were treated
scribed earlier were used. Immunoreac- subjected to polyacrylamide gel electro- with vehicle or estradiol or prepared for
tivity was determined with the use of phoresis (Bio-Rac, Hercules, CA) and RNA interference studies as described
horseradish peroxidase-conjugated sec- transferred onto nitrocellulose mem- earlier. Cells were serum- and supple-
ondary antibody, followed by addition of branes (Invitrogen). Membranes were ment-starved in basal media overnight at
diaminobenzidine substrate. probed with antibodies as described 36 hours from the start of transfection.
earlier. Antirabbit and antimouse im- The medium was replaced the next
RNA isolation and real-time munoglobulin G that was conjugated to morning. Twenty-four hours later, cell
polymerase chain reaction horseradish peroxidase (Cell Signaling culture supernatant was collected, cen-
Total RNA from primary endothelial cell Technology) were used as secondary an- trifuged to remove any cellular contam-
cultures was extracted with Tri-Reagent tibodies. Immunoreactive bands were inants, and transferred to a fresh tube.
(Sigma-Aldrich). One microgram of RNA visualized with an enhanced chemilumi- Enzyme immunoassays were performed
was reverse transcribed with the Q-script nescence detection system (GE Health- for thromboxane B2 (TXB2; main me-
Flex complementary DNA (cDNA) Syn- care, Piscataway, NJ). Quantification of tabolite of TXA2) and 6-keto-prosta-
thesis Kit (Quanta Biosciences, Gaithers- chemiluminescence signal intensity was glandin F1 alpha (6-keto-PGF1 ; main
APRIL 2009 American Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology 427.e3
4. Research Basic Science: Obstetrics www.AJOG.org
FIGURE 2
Cyclooxygenase-2 response to estradiol treatment
A, Real-time PCR demonstrates minimal induction of COX-2 mRNA levels; the 10–7 mol/L dose yields a 1.05-fold change. aP .03. B, Estradiol time-course
demonstrates statistically significant induction of COX-2 mRNA at 1, 4, and 8 hours. bP .05. With the exception of 1.62-fold induction at 1 hour (P .05),
COX-2 mRNA induction varies between 0.98-fold and 1.06-fold change at all other time points. C, COX-2 protein expression is inducible with lipopolysaccharide
(LPS) treatment, but not with estradiol or the ESR2-agonist diarylpropionitrile (DPN). D, Graphic depiction of COX-2 autoradiographic intensities with the use
of ImageJ software confirms that there is significant induction of COX-2 protein with lipopolysaccharide. cP .0005.
Veh, vehicle.
Su. ESR2 and villous endothelial cells. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2009.
metabolite of PGI2) with a commer- R ESULTS cular endothelium of certain organs.23,30
cial kit that used competitive substrate- In vivo distribution of ESR2 Within our model of fetoplacental endo-
acetylcholinesterase assays (Cayman in term placentas thelial cells, there was no consistent
Chemical, Ann Arbor, MI). Concentra- Cellular distribution of ESR1 and ESR2 COX-2 induction with estradiol treat-
tions were normalized to total protein was evaluated by immunohistochemistry ment in a dose- or time-dependent fash-
concentrations. in uncomplicated, term placentas. Immu- ion (Figure 2, A and B). This was repro-
noreactive ESR2 was detectable readily in duced with another less potent ESR2
Statistical analysis the nuclei of the villous endothelial cells ligand, estrone, and diarylpropionitrile
The data from all experiments were and syncytiotrophoblast (Figure 1). Sur- treatment (data not shown). We did note
pooled; numeric data are reported as prisingly, ESR1 was not detected. Of note, a 1.62-fold increase in COX-2 messenger
means of the 3 replicates performed human breast cancer tissue was used as a RNA (mRNA) after 1 hour of estradiol
within 1 subject, with error bars that rep- positive control for ESR1. treatment (P .05). Similarly, statistical
resent SEM. Statistical analysis for com- COX-2 is not induced by estradiol analysis also demonstrated significant
parison of treatment groups was per- or diarylpropionitrile in villous changes with 10–7 mol/L treatment at 4
formed with the Student t test or analysis endothelial cells and 8 hours, although the maximal fold-
of variance followed by the Scheffe mul- Previous studies have demonstrated es- change that was seen was only 1.06. Al-
tiple comparison test, when appropriate. tradiol induction of COX-2 within vas- though statistically significant, this de-
427.e4 American Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology APRIL 2009
5. www.AJOG.org Basic Science: Obstetrics Research
gree of induction was minimal and of
FIGURE 3
uncertain relevance from a mechanistic
ESR2 knock-down effects on cyclooxygenase-2 expression
standpoint. From a protein standpoint,
there did not appear to be any COX-2
induction with estradiol or diarylpropio-
nitrile, whereas COX-2 protein levels
were inducible when lipopolysaccharide
was used as a positive control (Figure 2,
C and D).
Human placental villous endothelial
cells do not express endogenous
aromatase
Endothelial cell aromatase expression
has been described previously and ap-
pears organ dependent.31 With real-time
PCR, aromatase cycle threshold expres-
sion was undetectable in our villous en-
dothelial cell model in 5 subjects. Of
note, cDNA from MCF-7 breast cancer
cells that were used as a positive control
demonstrated the presence of low, but
detectable, expression (average Ct value,
34.98).
COX-2 expression is decreased
in the setting of ESR2 knock-down
The lack of COX-2 induction with estra-
diol treatment or in the setting of an
ESR2-specific agonist was surprising. To
confirm that estrogen and ESR2 did not
mediate COX-2 induction within villous
endothelial cells, we used RNA interfer-
ence to knock down ESR2 within our
cultured villous endothelial cells. Trans-
fection of ESR2 siRNA led to a consistent
knock-down of ESR2 mRNA by no A, Real-time PCR demonstrates that ESR2 mRNA expression is decreased by no less than 84% after
84%, and these results were not altered ESR2 knock-down in comparison with transfection with nontarget, mismatch siRNA. aP .0001.
by estradiol treatment (P .0001; Figure This effect occurs regardless of vehicle or estradiol (E2) treatment. B, COX-2 mRNA levels are also
3, A). Similarly, COX-2 mRNA levels ablated significantly in the setting of ESR2 knock-down; again, this appears independent of estradiol
also were ablated significantly in the set- treatment. bP .001. C and D, Representative Western blots with graphic depiction of pooled data
ting of ESR2 knock-down; again, this ap- show that there are no significant differences in COX-2 or ESR2 protein levels in the absence of
peared independent of estradiol treat- transfection reagent with exposure to lipid transfection reagent alone or transfection with nontarget
ment (P .001; Figure 3, B). Although siRNA (lanes 1-3). In contrast, there is a trend toward ESR2 protein expression decrease with ESR2
ESR2 protein knock-down was less dra- knock-down with a concomitant significant decrease in COX-2 protein (lane 4). As shown in lanes
matic, pooled image analyses of all West- 5-8, COX-2 protein levels are decreased significantly in the setting of ESR2 knock-down, regardless
ern blots demonstrated an approximate of vehicle treatment (V) or estradiol (E2) treatment. cP .06; dP .05.
50% knock-down in ESR2 protein (Fig- Su. ESR2 and villous endothelial cells. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2009.
ure 3, C and D). This led to concomitant
decreases in COX-2 protein levels that
occurred in the presence and absence of TXB2 and 6-keto-prostaglandin endothelial cells and platelets locally and
treatment (P .05; Figure 3, C and D). F1 levels are decreased exerts its effect in an autocrine or para-
Of note, there was no effect noted on after ESR2 knock-down crine manner.8,32 It then is converted
COX-2 or ESR2 expression in the absence TXA2, which is one of the main prosta- rapidly (nonenzymatically) to its metab-
of transfection conditions or in the pres- noids responsible for vasoconstriction olite TXB2.33 Similarly, PGI2, which is
ence of lipid transfection reagent alone. and platelet activation, is formed by both synthesized primarily by endothelial
APRIL 2009 American Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology 427.e5
6. Research Basic Science: Obstetrics www.AJOG.org
within the 12 subjects without significant
FIGURE 4
COX-2 induction, lipopolysaccharide
6-keto-PGF1 and TXB2-concentrations after ESR2 interference was able to stimulate a response, thereby
demonstrating the potential to capture
COX-2 induction within our model.35
Another possible explanation was that
endogenous estrogen exists within the
culture system. Certain endothelial cells
are capable of synthesizing estrogen
through aromatase; in our system, this
may have negated any further exogenous
estradiol that was added to the culture
medium. To test this hypothesis, we per-
formed real-time PCR using validated
In the absence of estradiol, ESR2 knock-down leads to significant decreases in endothelial cell
aromatase primer-probes on endothelial
contributions of both A, 6-keto-PGF1 (aP .0001) and B, TXB2 (bP .005). The percent change
cell cDNA from 5 separate subjects. Aro-
in both is similar (67% vs 64%).
Su. ESR2 and villous endothelial cells. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2009.
matase Ct values were undetectable in all,
whereas cDNA from MCF-7 breast can-
cer cells that were used as a positive con-
cells and leads to vascular smooth mus- sults in this study confirm endogenous trol demonstrated the presence of low,
cle relaxation, is converted rapidly to its expression of ESR2 within villous endo- but detectable, expression. Without the
metabolite 6-keto-PGF1 .32 Enzyme thelial cells and negate the possibility of presence of endogenous estrogen, an-
immunoassays of cells that were treated induction from the isolation process it- other possibility was that our in vitro
with a dose-dependent course of estra- self. Thus, with the presence of ESR2, it culture system was inadvertently and in-
diol did not demonstrate any significant was anticipated that estrogenic com- consistently affecting coactivators or
changes in TXB2 or 6-keto-PGF1 levels pounds would induce COX-2 within vil- corepressors. This could explain the fact
(data not shown). To elucidate down- lous endothelial cells. that 5-fold induction was seen in 2 sub-
stream effects of ESR2 and COX-2 abla- It should be noted that there did ap- jects. The final possibility was that ESR2
tion, we performed enzyme immunoas- pear to be a significant induction of itself was not an actual mediator of
says for TXB2 and 6-keto-PGF1 in the COX-2 at 1 hour. However, this value COX-2 and prostanoid biosynthesis. To
setting of nontarget siRNA transfection was driven primarily by results from 2 address this, we performed RNA inter-
and ESR2 siRNA transfection in the ab- subjects that demonstrated approxi- ference studies knocking down ESR2;
sence of treatment. These results demon- mately 5-fold induction of COX-2 at 1 surprisingly, we found striking decreases
strated corresponding decreases in both hour. Within the remaining 12 subjects, in COX-2 mRNA and protein levels with
TXB2 and 6-keto-PGF1 concentra- fold-induction varied from 0.92-1.31 at ESR2 knock-down. This occurred both
tions in cell culture supernatant (P 1 hour, which was unlikely to be biolog- in the basal untreated state and under es-
.0001 and P .005, respectively; Figure 4). ically relevant. Similarly, there was statis- tradiol-treatment conditions.
tical significance noted at the 10–7 mol/L The implications of ESR2 mediation
C OMMENT dose point, the 4-hour time point, and of COX-2 within fetoplacental endothe-
In this study, we found that, unlike other the 8-hour time point. Of these 3 specific lial cells, even in the untreated basal
endothelial cells such as those within points, maximal fold-induction was state, are important for a number of rea-
uterine vasculature, COX-2 was not in- 1.06, which again, although statistically sons. It is possible that ESR2 is a major
duced reliably by direct estrogenic stim- significant, likely did not carry biologic regulator of COX-2, where a 50% decre-
uli within villous endothelial cells. Yet, 1 significance. ment in expression of a major transcrip-
of the main receptors for the various es- The discrepancy between subjects at 1 tion factor may be adequate to induce
trogens, ESR2, appears to be an impor- hour was surprising, especially because significant changes to downstream
tant mediator in the prostanoid biosyn- ESR2 was expressed endogenously, and genes.36 Furthermore, to our knowledge,
thesis pathway. various possible explanations were con- ligand-independent regulation of vascu-
We previously demonstrated ESR2 ex- sidered. First, nongenomic induction of lar function and vasomotor tone has not
pression as the sole estrogen receptor COX-2 was considered, and treatment at been described previously, and this pos-
within total cellular protein of cultured 5, 15, and 30 minutes was performed, sibility warrants further investigation.
villous endothelial cells.22 Other investi- with no induction noted of COX-2 (data To accomplish this, it will be important
gators, however, have described induc- not shown). To confirm that COX-2 was to rule out less traditional ligands such as
ible ESR2 expression under certain con- indeed inducible in villous endothelial estriol.37 It will also be essential to eluci-
ditions that include shear laminar cells of all subjects, lipopolysaccharide date the regions of the COX-2 promoter
stress.34 Our immunohistochemical re- was used as a positive control. Even that are stimulated by ESR2. Several po-
427.e6 American Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology APRIL 2009
7. www.AJOG.org Basic Science: Obstetrics Research
tential candidate DNA-binding sites ex- noid biosynthesis. In the future, it will be standing of the pathophysiologic mech-
ist and include multiple estrogen re- important to investigate the direct effects anisms behind chronic placental insuffi-
sponse element (ERE) half-sites (eg, of ESR2 on TXA2 synthase and PGI2 ciency states. f
– 832/– 827, –1493/–1398, – 4671/– 4666) synthase gene expression. Furthermore,
based on results from the “Transcription even if ESR2 does not mediate these REFERENCES
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427.e8 American Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology APRIL 2009