Plant biosecurity

INTRODUCTION
• Biosecurity is a strategic and integrated approach that encompasses the policy and
regulatory framework to analyse and manage risks in the sectors of food safety, animal life
and health, and plant life and health, including associated environmental risk.
• It covers the following: The introduction of plant pests, animal pests and diseases, and
zoonoses.
• The introduction and management of invasive alien species and genotypes.
• The introduction and release of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and their
products.
• Thus, biosecurity is a holistic concept of direct relevance to the sustainability of
agriculture, food safety, and the protection of the environment, including biodiversity.
• Plants are an essential economic, environmental and social asset: cereals, fruit and
vegetables make a vital contribution to our food supply and to our rural economy and
other plant species are essential parts of the biodiversity of the countryside.
prabha.reddy95@gmail.com

• They also provide important ecosystem services; for example, trees shape the
landscape and provide timber. They are equally important in urban areas (including
streets, squares, parks and public and private gardens), and are part of our heritage,
provide visual amenity and support our health and wellbeing.
• increase the risk of pest establishment, spread and impact, and may influence the
conditions under which previously benign pests are able to develop and cause
damaging impacts. Combinations of pests and diseases, and other stressors, such as
air pollution and acid rain, add to the complexity of the picture.

Need for Biosecurity in Trade and Exchange Programmes
• The introduction of pests into a new locality is brought about in
various ways namely:
a) the host may be the carrier.
b) inert materials such as packing material may carry resting stages of
the organism.
c) insect vectors and birds may transport it.
d) air currents may carry the pest over long distances or,
e) there may be deliberate, illegal introductions to use them as
bioweapons.

SCOPE
• This strategy sets out the government’s approach to plant biosecurity,
which focuses specifically on plant pests.
• Whilst linking with wider work on plant health more generally (including
for example soil health), the biosecurity of animals and the prevention of
the incursion of other invasive species, these areas, which are covered by
different national and European legislation, are not covered in this strategy.
• Other invasive species include invasive plants such as aquatic species or
Japanese knotweed, as well as insects that do not threaten plants, mammals
and birds.

• Ensures activity is directed at priority pests and pathways and is informed by comprehensive risk
assessment, which includes plant pathology, population dynamics, and epidemiology, as well as the
social sciences to understand the values at stake.
• Meets our EU and international obligations, to enable businesses to trade in clean material and grow.
• Ensures everyone (government and its agencies, industry, NGOs, landowners and the public) shares a
common understanding of biosecurity and their role and responsibilities.
• Ensures that those who benefit from plant biosecurity activity should where appropriate be responsible
for that activity, and bear the cost of it.
• Ensures the Plant Health Services are able to respond effectively to new and emerging threats.
• Ensures GB as a whole is resilient, capable and prepared to respond flexibly to new and emerging
threats.
• Ensures GB production has a good reputation to allow exports of plants and plant products to develop,
with consequent economic and social benefits.
Strategies to build and enhance existing activity to deliver an improved biosecurity
system:

VISION
• Our vision is to protect plants from pests that have been identified as priorities for action, and to build
awareness of the risks from pests, knowledge of how to reduce those risks and to introduce a system of
management that will incentivise risk reduction.
• To achieve this by 2020 there will be:
• An effective and sustainable plant health service which makes risk-based decisions within a transparent,
evidence based and consistent framework that is focused on long-term benefits, as well as timely short-term
actions to tackle immediate problems.
• Greater awareness of plant biosecurity among government, industry, NGOs, landowners and the public who
will have confidence in the plant biosecurity system and will understand and be committed to playing their
role.
• Strengthened international regimes for safe movement of plant material in international trade to prevent the
arrival of pests.
• Enhanced capability, capacity and collaboration in plant health with enhanced governance and systems in
place to share information across all those with a role to play in plant biosecurity.

• New and enhanced technology and scientific tools to enable better detection of pests. This will aim to
improve our understanding of pest behaviour, and of the social and behavioural factors affecting
biosecurity, enabling us to better target action and increase the chances of success in tackling outbreaks.
• A resilient environment with species choice, design and management approaches ensuring we are more
able to deal with pests which become established;
• A revised strategy with refined goals to ensure optimal delivery.
• This strategy is not simply about what government will do to improve plant biosecurity since safeguards
are not a matter for government alone.
• Many plant importers, nurseries and landowners already play a major role in minimising the spread of
pests through practising good biosecurity, including sourcing clean stock and identifying outbreaks on
their sites.
• This strategy sets out how this role will be enhanced, strengthened, and expanded to encompass all plant
importers, nurseries and landowners with responsibility sitting with those best placed to manage the
risks.
• NGOs and the public are already playing a role in helping to spot signs and symptoms of plant pests and
we will work to strengthen the capacity of these groups and individuals to complement enhanced official
surveillance. prabha.reddy95@gmail.com

OVERVIEW
• Work with suppliers and exporting countries to tackle pests at source (pre-border) to minimise the risk of their arriving
in GB.
• Ensure we are fulfilling our international obligations and supplying clean plants and plant material through the health
certification of plants and plant product for export.
• Tackle pests at the border through risk targeted import inspections.
• Detect pest outbreaks inland through surveillance by government and its agencies, industry, NGOs, landowners and the
public.
• Rapidly tackle outbreaks which do occur to provide the best chance of eradication and to minimise their costs: and
Increase social, environmental and economic resilience to mitigate and where necessary adapt to the potential future
impacts of pests.
• This approach is referred to as the biosecurity continuum and is widely applied internationally.
• The stages of the continuum include important feedback loops with interceptions at the border reported back to rectify
failings in exporting countries, and management of outbreaks providing evidence and intelligence for risk assessment.
We will look to enhance biosecurity at all points on this continuum through the enhanced activity described in this
strategy.

The devastating effects resulting from diseases and pests
• The devastating effects resulting from diseases and pests introduced along with international
movement of planting material, agricultural produce and products are well documented.
• The historical Irish famine of 1845, caused by late blight of potato introduced from Central
America.
• Coffee rust introduced in Sri Lanka in 1875 and its subsequent introduction in India in 1876.
• Fluted scale on citrus introduced from Sri Lanka in 1928.
• San Jose scale in apple introduced into India in 1930s.
• Bunchy top of banana introduced from Sri Lanka in 1943.
• The dreaded Golden nematode infesting potatoes introduced in 1960s from the UK and the
noxious weed Lantana camara introduced in 1809 from Central America are glaring examples
that clearly demonstrate that introduction and establishment of quarantine pests including
weeds into new areas can severely damage the crop production and economy of a
region/country.

Major Threats from Devastating Exotic
Plant Pests/ Diseases
Bacterial and Fungal Pathogens
• Bacterial wilt and ring rot of potato (Clavibacter michiganensis sub sp. sepedonicus)
• Fire blight of apple and pear (Erwinia amylovora)
• Black pod of cocoa (Phytophthora megakarya)
• Powdery rust of coffee (Hemileia coffeicola)
• Sudden death of oak (Phytophthora ramorum)
• South American leaf blight of rubber (Microcyclus ulei)
• Vascular wilt of oil palm (Fusarium oxysporum f sp. elaedis)
• Soybean downy mildew (Peronospora manshurica)
• Blue mold of tobacco (P. hyocyami sub sp. tabacina)
• Tropical rust of maize (Physopella zeae)

Virus, Viroid and Phytoplasma
• Barley stripe mosaic virus
• Coconut cadang cadang (Viroid)
• Palm lethal yellowing (Phytoplasma)
Nematodes
• Pine wood nematode (Bursaphelenchus xylophilus)
• Red ring nematode of coconut (Rhadinaphelenchus cocophilus)
Insects
• Mediterranean fruit fly (Ceratitis capitata)
• Cotton boll weevil (Anthonomus grandis)
• Russian wheat aphid (Diuraphis noxia)

Need of immediate emphasis

It is the process of introduction mainly includes the
introduction of non indigenous beneficial insects species
into new ecosystem
Productive insects
ex: European honey bee
Weed killers
Biological control agents
Predators and parasites
Intentional introduction

• Many weed killers are introduced to country in order to control
certain weeds
• Examples
• Zygogramm bicolorata -Parthenium
• Cyrtobagus salvenae -Water fern
• Neochaetina bruchi -Water hyacinth
• Dactylopus tomentosus – prickly pear

• Includes introduction of predators and parasitoids in order
to manage pest species
ex : Rodolia cardinalis
Curinus coeruleus Predators
Cryptolaemus montrouzieri
Aphelinus mali
Cephalonomia stephanoderis Parasitoids
Phymastichus coffea

Most of the biological invasion is occur unintentionally
Global trading
Shipping containers (Ash borer in USA)
Lurking under the bark of log imports ( bark beetle in Brittan )
Tourism (fruit fly in japan )
Two species of fruit fly, the Oriental fruit fly, Bactrocera
dorsalis, and the melon fly, B. cucurbitae
(Kiritani, 2000)
Unintentional introduction

• It is the process of development of population of invasive
insects that may persist for many generation from the
founder population
• Founder population is usually small and consequently
under high risk of environmental factors
• Smaller the founder population establishment is likely
less
(MacArthur and Wilson, 1967)
Establishment

Probability of establishment is a function of initial population it
depends on
 Propagule pressure
 Availability of host
 Insect body size
 Rate of reproduction
 Mate location abilities
 Genetic diversity
• Successful establishment is takes when the invaded species
overcome the environmental barriers and reproductive barriers
(Mollison,1986)

• It is the process of expansion of invasive species range from
its initial site of introduction
• Spread is through
 Movement of infested planting material: It is one of the major
path for spread of invasive insect species
 Dispersion of invasive species: Self dispersion of invasive
species to adjoining area after the process of establishment and it is
very slow and varies between the species
Spread

• It is the process of adaption of invasive insect to the new
environment and interaction with local biota
• During the process of naturalization interaction with local
biota will takes place casually but adaption needs some
time and it increases with time
• Rate of naturalization is differs between invasive
organisms and generally in insects it is quickly takes place
(Vermiji, 2006 )
Naturalization

Impact of invasive insects
• Ecological impacts
• Economic impacts

• In most of the cases invasive insect in a new ecosystem is
without natural enemies and no control it helps them to
 Increase in there population size
 Increases the resource utilization
Ultimately they outcompete the native biota and leads in
the alteration of structure and species composition of new
ecosystem by
• Displacement of native species
• Causes the extinction of native species

Displacement of native species
• Chilo partellus is a Asian stem borer on maize and
sorghum and it was accidentally introduced into Africa,
caused the partial displacement of native stem borers
Chilo orchalocociliellus and sesamia calamitis

• In the coastal area of Kenya, detailed study on stemborers in
maize was conducted by surveying the abundance
• The native species, Chilo orichalcociliellus was found to be
dominant, accounting for approximately 60 % of the borers
collected. Chilo partellus was the second most common
species, accounting for about 30 % of the borers, and another
native species, Sesamia calamistis was lowest in abundance
(Mathez,1972)

• In the priod 1978-81found that C.partellus were nearly
equally abundant in maize and sorghum, as that C.
orichalcociliellus and S. calamistis was much less
common.
(Warui and Kuria,1983)
• However, in 1991- 92 in the same area, C. partellus
accounted for > 80 per cent of the stemborers, with both
C. orichalcociliellus and S. calamistis being of minor
importance
(Overholt et al, 1994)

Species extinction due to invasive insect
• In UK tree spp Gumwood Commidendrum robusrum on this
scale insect, Orthizia insignis appeared 10 years ago and attack
wide range of plants along with Gumwood now population of
gumwood is under the risk of extinction now plant density is
less than 2000
( Booth et al,1995)

• Crop loss is a major economic impact of invasive insects
• California they have estimated that economic impact of
invasive Mediterranean fruitfly they have spent US $ 3.7
million dollars for eradication
(Getz,1989)

• In USA 43 invasive spp were recorded during 1906-1996
among them 15% invasive spp cause severe damage and
estimated cost is US $ 92.5 billion
• In Punjab the losses caused by the mealybug were
estimated to be Rs. 159 crores to cotton growers during
kharif season 2007
(Anonymous, 2008)

Important invasive insect pests of India

Common
name
Scientific name Introduced
from
Primary host Year of
introduction
Apple woolly
aphid
Eriosoma
lanigerum
China Apple 1889
Coffee berry
borer
Hypothenemus
hampei Ferrari
Srilanka Coffee 1990
Serpentine
leaf miner
Liriomyza trifolii
Burgess
USA Tomato and
castor
1990
San Jose
scale
Quadraspidiotu
s perniciousus
Comstock
Australia Populus spp
Salix spp
1911

Diamond-
back moth
Plutellc
xylostella
Meditarian
region
Cabbage 1914
Lantana bug Orthezia
insignis
(Browne)
Srilanka Lantana 1915
Cottony
cushion scale
Icerya
purchasi
(Maskell)
Srilanka Acacia 1921
Potato tuber
moth
Phthorimaea
operculella
(Zeller)
Italy potato 1937
Sugarcane
woolly aphid
Ceratovaccu
na lanigera
Jawa Sugarcane 1958
Cont…

Pine woolly
aphid
Pineus pini
(Macquart)
USA Pine 1970
Subabul
psyllid
Heteropsylla
cubana
Srilanka Subabul 1988
Spiraling
whitefly
Aleurodicus
disperses
Russell
China Tomato 1999
Silver leaf
whitefly
Bemisia
argentifolii
Bellows and
Perring
USA Tomato 1999

Cotton mealy bug Phenacoccus solenopsis
• It is originated from USA
• In India it is reported from Baroda district during
2003-04
• Introduced from Pakistan
(Jhala et al, 2008 )

Erythrina gall wasp (EGW) Quadrastichus erythrinae
• Originated from East Africa
• In India it is reported in 2006
• EGW is one of the major constraints for growth and production of
black pepper vines in recent years
(Ananthakrishnan, 2009)

Papaya mealy bug (Paracoccus marginatus)
• It a native to Mexico
• In India during 2007 it is reported from Tamilnadu
• Introduced from Srilanka
• Hosts : Papaya , Gauva, mango, tomato, tapioca

Blue gum chalcid (Leptocybe invasa)
• Originated from Australia
• Introduced to India in 2006 through
vegetative planting material
(Ananthkrishnan ,2009)

Coconut leaf beetle Brontispa longissma
• Originated from Indonesia
• Introduced to India from Srilanka in 2009
• It is introduced to India through human activity like
importation of seedlings
Shivasagar, 2009

Management of invasive and alien pests
Prevention
Early detection
Eradication

Prevention
• It is first line defence
• Important step in prevention is to identify risk of invasive spp
and put them under black list for special attention and prohibit the
entry by national legislation and SPS agreements
• In India importation Beans (seeds) / Berries (freshly harvested)/
Grafts/ Bud wood/ Seedlings/ Rooted cuttings of coffee are
prohibited from Africa and South America against
Coffee thrips (Diarthrothrips coffeae)
PQ order 2003

Pre-shipment Disinfestation treatments
• Pre-shipment treatments implemented at the origin or post
entry can be very effective in preventing the establishment of
alien species in an uninfested area.
• It includes
1. Chemical fumigation
2. Heat treatments
3. Irradiation,
4. Controlled atmosphere

Chemical fumigation
• Most widely using pre-shipment disinfestation method
o Methyl bromide : F. occidentalis 20 g/m3 and exposure time
of 2 hours were needed to attain 100% kill with no
phytotoxicity
o Phosphine
o Sulfuryl fluoride
o Propylene oxide (PPO)

Heat treatment
• Also effective against many floriculture quarantine pests
• vapour heat is a promising postharvest treatment to disinfest
tropical cut flowers and foliage

Irradiation
• Ionizing radiation is a promising insect disinfestation treatment
that is approved by the APHIS as a quarantine treatment
• It effective against many invasive thrips associated with
floriculture crops
• High dose of ionizing radiation at 150 krads will cause
complete mortality in Thrips palmi in orchid flowers
• 25 Krad is known cause non emergence of egg, pupae, failure
of larval development and sterility in adults in western flower
thrips
( Yalemar et al. 2001)

Controlled atmosphere
• It promising postharvest disinfestation treatment for fruits,
flowers and vegetables because most commodities will tolerant
short exposures (4 to 24 hr.) to high concentrations of carbon
dioxide
(Cantwell & Mitcham,1995)
• Very high carbon dioxide levels (60%) At higher temperature
of 35º C (95º F), complete mortality of the western flower
thrips, Frankliniella occidentalis
(Simpson et al., U.C. Davis, unpublished data).

• It is a process of identification of invasive insects though
regular monitoring and survey in risky areas
• It helps to take up further management practices to eradicate
the pest before spread
Early detection

Eradication
• It is a process of complete elimination of invasive pests before
they are permanently established in new region
• Success of eradication is always depends on early detection of
invasive pest and subsequent monitoring
• Mediterranean fruitfly

Plant biosecurity

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