1. Occupational Health & Safety
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Delegate Workbook
Occupational Health and Safety Principles
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2. Occupational Health & Safety
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3. Occupational Health & Safety
1. Introduction
Occupational Health is the promotion and maintenance of the highest degree of physical,
mental and social well-being of workers in all occupations by preventing departures from
health, controlling risks and the adaptation of work to people, and people to their jobs (ILO/
WHO, 1950). OHS involves the identification and control of the risks arising from physical,
chemical, and other workplace hazards in order to establish and maintain a safe and healthy
working environment. According to the International Labour Organisation (ILO), the main
focus in occupational health is on three different objectives:
 to maintain and promote workers’ health and working capacity;
 to improve the working environment and work to become conducive to safety and
 to develop work organizations and working cultures in a direction which supports
health and safety at work and in doing so also promotes a positive social climate and
smooth operation and may enhance productivity of the undertakings.
Occupational Safety is the maintenance of a work environment that is relatively free from
actual or potential hazards that can injure employees (IAPA, 2007). Safety is therefore the
condition of being free from harm, risk, or injury; workplace safety aims at the protection of
employees in their specific jobs from adverse health effects or injury caused by their working
conditions. To ensure the safety and health of workers in a work environment, health and
safety programmes should be developed which ensure:
Occupational health and safety (OHS) is generally defined as the science of the anticipation,
recognition, evaluation and control of hazards arising in or from the workplace that could
impair the health and well-being of workers, taking into account the possible impact on the
surrounding communities and the general environment (Alli, 2008). Occupational health and
safety encompasses a large number of disciplines and numerous workplace and
environmental hazards. A wide range of structures, skills, knowledge and analytical
capacities are needed to coordinate and implement all of the “building blocks” that make up
national OHS systems so that protection is extended to both workers and the environment.
Occupational health and safety is a discipline with a broad scope involving many specialised
fields. In its broadest sense, it should aim at:
 the promotion and maintenance of the highest degree of physical, mental and social
 the prevention among workers of adverse effects on health caused by their working
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Unit 1: Introduction
health; and
 management commitment;
 accountability;
 safety programs,
 policies, and plans;
 safety inspections for workplace hazards;
 hazard identification and control;
 safety committees to promote employee involvement; as well as
 safety education and training.
well-being of workers in all occupations;
conditions;
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4. Occupational Health & Safety
 the protection of workers in their employment from risks resulting from factors
 the placing and maintenance of workers in an occupational environment adapted to
The high prevalence of accidents, occupational diseases and injuries in most workplaces
requires the implementation of preventive and protective measures that assure the safety and
health of workers. These unfortunate occurrences also threaten the lives of other workers and
their dependents, and in addition to the pain, suffering or death endured by the victims, they
also lead to loss of experienced labour (skilled and unskilled), material loss (machinery and
equipment as well as nonconforming products) and collateral damage (costs of medical care,
compensation costs, repair or replacement of damaged machinery or equipment).
The measures for the prevention and control of hazards should be founded on a clearly
defined policy at the level of the enterprise. The occupational health and safety (OHS) policy
should be concise, easily understood, approved by the highest level of management and
communicated to everyone in the organisation. A policy is a statement of intent, and a
commitment to plan for coordinated management action; a policy should provide a clear
indication of a company’s health and safety objectives, which in turn, provides direction for
the OHS program (IAPA, 2007).Successful occupational health and safety practice requires
the collaboration and participation of both employers and workers in health and safety
programmes, and involves the consideration of issues relating to occupational medicine,
industrial hygiene, toxicology, education, engineering safety, ergonomics, psychology, etc.
1.1 Occupational Health and Safety Management
Organisations that are successful in managing health and safety recognise the relationship
between the control of risks, general health and the very core of the business itself (HSE,
2008). Occupational health and safety policies are aligned with other human resource
management policies designed to secure commitment and involvement and to promote the
well-being of employees. These initiatives can take the form of job restructuring – to reduce
monotony and increase flexibility, or health promotion campaigns. Organisations that want to
behave ethically and responsibly:
 recognise the benefits of a fit, enthusiastic, competent and committed workforce;
 realise that progressive human resource management policies can be undermined by
 show that they are concerned not simply with preventing accidents and ill health (as
The ultimate goal of OHS management in any organisation is thus to improve its health and
safety performance, so that accidents and ill health are eliminated to the mutual benefit of
both the employee and the organisation. This integrated approach extends outside the
organisation in policies for the control of off-site risks, environmental pollution and product
safety.
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adverse to health;
physical and mental needs;
 the adaptation of work to humans.
weak health and safety policies; and
required by health and safety legislation) but also with positive health promotion.
The benefits of good health and safety standards include (Conigilo, 2010):
 health, happy and motivated work teams;
 reduction in sick leave;
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5. Occupational Health & Safety
1.2 Role of Occupational Health and Safety
Workersare exposed to occupational accidents and work-related accidents/ hazards that are
inherent at the individual workplaces, hence there is need to implement preventive and
control measures by all the stakeholders, that is, the employer, managers and employees
(Alli, 2008). The measures for the prevention and control of occupational hazards should be
founded on clearly defined and formulated policies. The policy should be documented, and
cover all the requisite arrangements for ensuring health and safety, and will particularly
include the following:
 allocation of responsibilities for OHS within the organisation;
 communicate information on policies to all stakeholders;
 determine the organisation of OHS services; and
 determine measures for the surveillance of the work environment and employee
Health and safety at work describes the measures designed to protect employees, visitors and
members of the public who may be affected by the work activities (Conigilo, 2010). Injuries
are most commonly caused by:
 lifting, carrying or handling activities;
 slipping, tripping or falling;
 being struck by a moving object or vehicle;
 contact with moving machinery;
 contact with harmful substances such as chemicals, or making contact with electricity;
 extremes of temperature;
 explosions;
 drowning or asphyxiation.
Occupational illnesses (those linked with work activities) include diseases and conditions
such as:
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 good reputation;
 increased performance and profitability;
 orderly working environment and procedures;
 confidence in health and safety standards;
 increased job security.
The costs of poor health and safety standards include (Conigilo, 2010):
 accidents, illness and stress;
 fatalities;
 increased sick leave;
 loss of earnings and increased personnel costs;
 bad publicity;
 reduced company performance;
 prosecution, fines and imprisonment;
 high staff turnover;
 prohibition and closure;
 compensation claims;
 increased insurance costs;
health.
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6. Occupational Health & Safety
 introduction – get to know employees in his charge and be known to them;
 instruction – clearly pass information and theory regarding safe systems of work,
personal protective equipment, accident and hazard reporting procedures, among
others;
 demonstration – practical demonstrations of safe task completion;
 practice – give room to workers to become proficient in tasks including the requisite
 monitoring performance – observe and employees’ competence including compliance
 reporting – evaluate employees’ performance including compliance to safety
It is therefore critical that all the above factors are taken into consideration in the training of a
supervisor, especially the duties and responsibility necessary for sound health and safety
performance levels in each section.
1.4 Costs of Occupational Injures/ Diseases
Work-related accidents or diseases can be very costly and result in direct and indirect effects
on the lives of workers and their families (ILO, 1996). For workers some of the direct costs
of an injury or illness are:
The International Labour Organisation (ILO) estimates that the indirect costs of an accident
or illness can be as high as four to ten times greater than the direct costs. The human
suffering caused to workers' familiesis one of the most prevalent indirect costs of workplace
accidents or diseases. Some of the direct costs for employersare:
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 vibrating injuries;
 hearing damage;
 asthma;
 dermatitis;
 musculoskeletal disorders;
 stress, depression, and anxiety;
 chemical exposure.
1.3 The Role of Supervisors
The roles played by supervisors in OHS management can be summarised as (Stranks, 2006):
safety precautions;
to safety procedures/ practices;
procedures;
 correcting and encouraging – with regards to safe systems of work.
 the pain and suffering of the injury or illness;
 the loss of income;
 the possible loss of a job;
 health-care costs.
 payment of wages for sick/ injured workers;
 medical and compensation payments;
 repair or replacement of damaged machinery and equipment;
 reduction or a temporary halt in production;
 increased training expenses and administration costs;
 possible reduction in the quality of work;
 negative effect on morale in other workers.
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7. Occupational Health & Safety
 a new worker has to be trained and given time to adjust;
 it takes time for the new worker to reach the productivity level of the original worker;
 time-consuming root cause analysis/ obligatory investigations, to the writing of
 accidents often arouse the concern of fellow workers and influence labour relations in
 poor health and safety conditions in the workplace can also result in poor public
Thecosts of most work-related accidents or illnesses to workers and their families and to
employers are very high. On a national scale, the estimated costs of occupational accidents
and illnesses can account for as high as three to four per cent of a country's gross national
product. In reality, the total costs of work-related accidents or diseases are unknown because
of the multitude of indirect costs which are difficult to measure besides the more obvious
direct costs.
1.5 Occupational Health and Safety Legislation
Appropriate legislation and regulations, together with adequate means of enforcement, are
essential for the protection of workers’ health and safety (Alli, 2008). The ILO contends that
legislation is the very foundation of social order and justice; and its absence and lack of
enforcement opens the room for various forms of abuse. The law directly regulates specific
components of working conditions and the work environment that includes hours of work and
areas affecting occupational health and safety. The major challenge worldwide with regards
to OHS legislation is its application and practice; thus governments have put in place the
necessary measures in the form of labour inspection systems that ensure that certain statutory
requirements and obligations are met. The other major OHS problem relates to dealing with
new hazards, more so with the high speed of technology change being experienced.
The OHS Legislation is meant to help industry to achieve compliance with regulations and
accepted good practice. Legislation provides guidance that assist in the uniformity and
consistency in enforcement and the application of regulatory controls and to provide the
industry with a clear, open indication of what should be expected. The main objective of
OHS law is thus to protect the health and safety of the worker, which health and safety is
assured through the implementation of OHS systems that ensure the involvement and active
participation of all the relevant stakeholders.
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The indirect costs for employers include:
reports and filling out of forms;
a negative way;
relations.
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8. Occupational Health & Safety
2. Introduction
There are inherent hazards in the workplace that workers are exposed to on a daily basis, and
it is the responsibility of management to ensure that appropriate measures are put in place to
protect the health and safety of workers. In order to ensure the safety and health of workers in
a work environment, there is need to develop health and safety programmes that ensure
management commitment, accountability, safety programs, policies and plans, safety
inspections for workplace hazards, hazard identification and control, safety committees to
promote employee involvement, as well as safety education and training. The Factories Act
places a responsibility on employers to provide employees with suitable protective clothing in
any process involving excessive exposure to wet or to any injurious or offensive substance.
Personal protective equipment (PPE) refers to all equipment (including clothing affording
protection against the weather) which is intended to be worn or held by a person at work
which protects them against one or more risks to their health and safety (Gardiner, et al,
2005).PPE is widely used, primarily because it is perceived to be effective and relatively
inexpensive protection, whereas alternative techniques such as substitution, segregation or
other controls either cannot be applied or are perceived to be expensive. Employees provided
with PPErequire adequate information, instruction and/or training on its use. The extent of
information, instruction and/or training will vary with the complexity and performance of the
kit. Refreshertraining may be required from time to time, in addition to initial training on the
proper use and maintenance of PPE. The routine checks done by supervisors on the use of
PPE may help to determine when refresher training is required.
2.1 Types of PPE
It is the responsibility of the employer to provide PPE as necessary to protect employees from
workplace hazards (Woodside, et al, 1997). The types of PPE include protective equipment
for the head, eyes, face and extremities; protective clothing, respiratory devices and
protective shields and barriers. The hazards that warrant such protective equipment include
process hazards, chemical hazards, radiological hazards and mechanical irritants that could
cause injury through absorption, inhalation, or physical contact. Where employees provide
their own PPE, the employer must ensure that it is adequate, properly maintained and
sanitary. The employer must also:
 assess the hazards present or likely to be present in the workplace that necessitate the
 select the appropriate PPE for the identified hazards;
 communicate the selection decisions to employees;
 ensure proper use of the PPE by employees;
 ensure proper fit of PPE for each employee;
 provide training to employees, including when PPE is necessary, what PPE is
necessary, proper wearing of PPE, limitations of PPE, care and maintenance of PPE,
and the useful life and disposal of PPE;
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Unit 2: Personal Protective Equipment
use of PPE and prepare reports of the assessment;
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9. Occupational Health & Safety
 ensure employees understand the training before they are allowed to carry out work
2.1.1 Eye and Face Protection
Eye and face protection is required when employees are exposed to potential hazards such as
flying particles, molten metal, liquid chemicals, acid or caustic liquids, chemical gases or
vapours, or potentially injurious light radiation (Woodside, et al, 1997). The injuries from
these hazards often result in severe pain and discomfort, in many cases, long-term visual
impairment. Eye protection takes the form of spectacles, goggles or face shields; and
suitability for the hazard and comfort must be the over-riding factors in choosing the
particular device, as the users must have complete confidence in the protection it provides
and must not be forced to remove it to relieve discomfort during the operation for which
protection is required (Harrington, et al, 2007).
Each harmful agent will require a form of particular of protection, which may be unsuitable
for another agent. In other instances, the protection may extend to cover the face; whatever
hazard(s) exist, the device must be carefully chosen to suit the specific hazard(s). Eye
protection takes the form of spectacles, goggles or face shields:
 Safety spectacles: are only suitable for low energy hazards but are available in a wide
range of sizes to suit the face. The different types include clear, clip on, prescription,
tinted (anti-flash);
 Goggles: are suitable for a wide range of hazards but limited in fittings from any one
manufacturer. The different types include chemical, dust, gas, gas welding, general
purpose, molten metal;
 Shields: are suitable to protect the eyes or the whole face, can be attached to a helmet
or a head band but may be hand-held. The different types include eye, face, furnace
viewing, welding.
2.1.2 Respiratory Protection
Employers must use engineering controls to prevent atmospheric contamination from dusts,
fogs, fumes, mists, gases, smokes, sprays or vapours, where feasible (Hughes, et al, 2011).
The preferred method of reducing worker exposure to respiratory hazards is to minimize the
quantity of contaminants in the air through elimination, substitution or engineering controls.
Where engineering controls are not feasible, employers must provide employees with
respirators which must be applicable and suitable for the intended purpose.Respiratory
protective equipment can be divided into two categories – respirators (or face masks) which
filter and clean the air, and breathing apparatus which supply breathable air. The most
common forms of respirators are:
 filtering half mask– often disposable respirator made of the filtering material; covers
 half mask respirator – manufactured from rubber or plastic and designed to cover
the nose and mouth, have a replaceable filter cartridge. With the appropriate cartridge
fitted, they are suitable for dust, gas or vapour;
 full-face mask respirator– similar to a half mask type but covers the eyes with a
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requiring PPE;
 maintain records of employee training on PPE.
the nose and mouth and filters respirable size dust particles;
visor;
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10. Occupational Health & Safety
 powered respirator– a battery-powered fan supplies air through a filter to the face
 self-contained breathing apparatus – the air is supplied from compressed air in a
 fresh air hose apparatus – fresh air is delivered to a sealed face mask through a hose
 compressed air line apparatus – fresh air is delivered through a hose from a
2.1.3 Head Protection
Injuries to the head are generally the result of blows caused by the impact of angular objects
falling from a height, whereas in other cases, workers may strike their heads in a fall or suffer
a collision between some fixed object and their heads (Woodside, et al, 1997). A safety
helmet primarily serves to protect the head of the wearer against hazards, mechanical,
thermal and electrical shocks. A safety helmet should satisfy the following requirements in
order to minimise the effects of shocks to the head (Balty, et al, 1998):
 minimise the shock applied to the skull by spreading the load over the largest
possible surface by providing a large harness that matches various skull shapes,
together with a shell hard enough to prevent direct contact of the head with falling
objects or should the head hit a hard surface, thus the shell must be able to resist
deformation and perforation;
 have a smoothly rounded shape to deflect falling objects; protruding ridges tend to
arrest falling objects and thus retain slightly more kinetic energy than perfectly
smooth helmets;
 dissipate and disperse the energy that may be transmitted to it in such a way that the
energy is not passed totally to the head and neck by means of the harness, securely
fixed to the hard shell to absorb a shock without being detached from the shell. The
harness must be flexible enough to undergo deformation under impact without
touching the inside surface of the shell. This deformation, which absorbs most of the
energy of a shock, is limited by the minimum amount of clearance between the hard
shell and the skull and by the maximum elongation of the harness before it breaks.
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mask, hood, helmet or visor.
Breathing apparatus are used in one of three forms:
cylinder and forms a completely sealed system;
from an uncontaminated source;
compressed air line, either in continuous flow or on demand.
Figure 2.1: Example of Essential Elements of Safety Helmet
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11. Occupational Health & Safety
2.1.4 Skin Protection
The general categories of hazards for which protective clothing can provide protection
include chemical, physical and biological (Hughes, et al, 2011). The examples of the dermal
hazard categories are shown in Table2.1 below:
The material used for gloves, apron or garment must be suited to the purpose and must be
chosen carefully.
2.1.5 Hearing Protection
Noise is produced in a range of frequencies, and therefore the choice of hearing (not ear)
protection must be based upon the measured spectrum of the noise to be attenuated (Hughes,
et al, 2011). Hearing protectors are either ear-muffs, which cover the ears, or ear plugs that
are inserted into the ear canals. It is recommended that hearing protection should be used if
the workplace noise levels cannot be reduced to below 82db (A). The degree of protection
provided should be such that the level at the workers ears is below 82db (A).
i. Ear-muffs
These consist of a cup-shaped cover over each ear, held in place by a spring-loaded
headband, which are edged with a cushion filled with liquid or foam to ensure a good seal
around the ear. The degree of attenuation is affected by material of the cup and its lining and
the success of the device depends upon the quality of the seal around the ear. Servicing and
replacement facilities must be provided for ear-muffs because they will deteriorate with time,
in particular at the seals, which become distorted and harden with age.
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Hazard Example
Chemical Dermal toxins
Systemic toxins
Corrosives
Allergens
Physical Thermal hazards (hot/ cold)
Vibration
Radiation
Trauma producing
Biological Human pathogens
Animal pathogens
Environmental pathogens
Table 2.1: Examples of Dermal Hazard Categories
Skin protection includes guarding hands, feet and body against:
 damage from dermatitis or corrosive agents
 absorption into the body via the skin.
 radiant heat
 cold
 ionizing and non-ionizing radiation
 physical damage.
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12. Occupational Health & Safety
ii. Ear plugs
An ear plug is a device worn in the external ear canal, with pre-moulded available in a range
of sizes to fit into the ear canals of most people. These are designed to be inserted into the ear
canal, and can be of a variety of materials:
The reusable plugs require washing after use and a sterile place for storage, while the
disposable plugs are available in wall-mounted dispensers or in cartons containing several
days’ supply.
2.1.6 Foot and Leg Protection
Foot and leg injuries result mostly from the dropping of a heavy object particularly to the
toes, and are more prevalent among workers in the heavier industries such as mining, metal
manufacture, engineering and building and construction work (Hughes, et al, 2011).
Moltenmetals sparks or corrosive chemicals occur frequently in foundries, iron- and
steelworks, chemical plants can cause burns of the lower limbs. Acidic and alkaline agents
can cause dermatitis or eczema. Physicalinjury to the foot can be caused by striking it against
an object or by stepping on sharp protrusions such as can occur in the construction industry.
Improvements in the work environment have made the simple puncturing and laceration of
the worker’s foot by protruding floor nails and other sharp hazards less common, but
accidents from working on damp or wet floors still occur, particularly when wearing
unsuitable foot wear.
The type of foot and leg protection required is related to the risk involved; where in some
light industries, it may be sufficient for workers to wear well-made ordinary shoes. Foot
protection takes the form of safety boots/ shoes and gum boots.
2.2 Maintenance and Storage of PPE
PPE requires an effective maintenance system to ensure that the equipment continues to
provide the degree of protection for which it is designed (NHS, 2012). The maintenance of
PPE should follow the manufacturer’s instructions, which includes maintenance schedule,
recommended replacement periods and shelf lives. The maintenance of PPE may include
cleaning, examination, replacement, repair and testing. The wearer may be able carry out
simple maintenance like cleaning, but more intricate repairs can only be performed by
competent personnel. All PPE must be examined before use, while any loss or obvious defect
must be immediately reported to the supervisor. Employees must take reasonable care for any
PPE provided to them and not carry out any maintenance unless trained and authorised.
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Disposable plugs Reusable plugs
Glass down Paste-filled rubber
Plastic-coated glass down Paste-filled plastic
Wax-impregnated cotton wool Permanent moulded plastic
Polyurethane foam
Table 2.2: Materials for Ear Plugs
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13. Occupational Health & Safety
Adequate storage facilities must be provided for when PPE is not in use, unless where the
employees may take PPE away from the workplace. Accommodation may be simple (e.g.
pegs for waterproof clothing or safety helmets) and it need not be fixed (e.g. a case for safety
glasses or a container in a vehicle). Storage should be adequate to protect the PPE from
contamination, loss, damage, damp or sunlight. PPE that may become contaminated during
use should be stored separately from any storage provided for ordinary clothing.
2.3 Provision and Replacement of PPE
The responsibility for ensuring the provision of the correct PPE lies with management
regardless of the arrangements for supply. The arrangements for providing replacement PPE
must take into consideration the fact that unless a task requiring PPE can be stopped, avoided
or delayed until new PPE is obtained, replacement PPE must always be readily available.
Some organisations and departments operate central stores that deal with the provision of
PPE. In most cases, individual units/service areas are responsible for arranging the supply of
required PPE to staff.
2.4 Types of PPE Signage
Safety signs and colour are useful tools to help protect the health and safety of employees and
workplace visitors (IAPA, 2007). Safety signs act as a visual reminder to reinforce training
and compliance with safety policies and procedures. Safety signs are used to:
It is a legal requirement that employers make a determination if there is need for PPE to be
used to protect their workers from any hazards present in the workplace. WherePPE is
required/ used, a PPE programme should be implemented, which addresses the following:
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 draw attention to health and safety hazards;
 point out hazards that may not be obvious;
 provide general information and directions;
 remind employees where personal protectiveequipment must be worn;
 show where emergency equipment is located; and
 indicate where certain actions are prohibited.
 hazards present;
 selection, maintenance, and use of PPE;
 training of employees; and
 monitoring of the program to ensure its ongoing effectiveness.
Examples of some commonly used PPE signs are illustrated below:
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14. Occupational Health & Safety
2.5 Importance of Wearing PPE
The main function of PPEis to act as barriers between a person and a hazard, thus preventing
injuries by protecting the wearer from exposure to hazards on the job. An employee is
responsible for the maintenance and care of all PPE’s assigned to him or her. Employers
should know the hazards their workers face on the job, and then provide the proper
equipment to protect against those hazards. It’s important that workers be trained on how to
use and care for the equipment so it will provide maximum protection. The function and
purpose of the various forms of personal protection are outlined below:
i. Head Protection
Hardhats are designed to absorb a high degree of shock from a blow or impact and protect the
head, and also provide protection from penetration, side pressure, flames and electric current.
These must be worn in areas where there is danger from falling objects and bumping hazards.
ii. Eye and Face Protection
Protective devices for the eyes and the face such as goggles, spectacles and face shields must
be worn when performing jobs that may cause hard, sharp or small objects to fly or corrosive
liquids or chemicals to splash. Eye injuries can occur at anytime so constant awareness is
required to identify when eye protection is necessary.
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Figure 2.2: Types of PPE Signs
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15. Occupational Health & Safety
iii. Hand Protection
Hands and fingers are susceptible to injuries like amputations, lacerations, burns, fracture.
The major source of hazards include workplace materials, equipment and processes
especially moving machine parts, chemicals, materials handling, pointed objects and rough
materials. Hands and fingers should be treated with care to prevent injuries, following the
safe procedure when using tools and machines and handling chemicals and other
contaminating substance, on and off the job. Lockouts, tag outs and company issued and
approved working gloves must be worn when performing work hazardous to hands and
fingers.
iv. Respiratory Protection
Workingwith hazardous substances that produce dusts and other particulates, mist, vapours,
gases or fumes requires protection to be worn in the form of respirators, foam and surgical
masks. The high risk of exposure (through inhalation) can cause possible health effects which
may affect the mental and physical well-being of the worker.
v. Hearing protection
Noise hurts and sometimes inflicts permanent damage, which effects can be mitigated by
wearing ear protection in areas where decibel readings are high especially those with
machineries and equipment producing loud and strong noise.
vi. Body protection
Jobs that pose a risk of damaging the body from exposure to on-the-job physical and health
hazards require the wearing of clothing that resists the hazards involved like coveralls or
partial body protective equipment such as aprons, gloves or boots.
vii. Fall protection
Working in elevated and hazardous locations presents a risk of falling, thus safety belts must
be worn and attached to a nearby solid support, except where especially built and railed
scaffolds are provided.
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Unit 3: General Safety Rules
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16. Occupational Health & Safety
3. Introduction
The ultimate goal of any health and safety management system is to prevent injury and ill
health in the workplace (HSE, 2008). Adequate workplace precautions have to be provided
and maintained to prevent harm to people at the point of risk, which risks are created in the
business process as resources and information are used to create products and services. Each
stage of business activity in the workplace will require the necessary precautions to match the
hazards and risks that are inherent in the workplace.
Some of the practices commonly used in the workplace to achieve job safety and which are
necessary for disruption-free process flow include, but are not limited to the following:
 workers and supervisors must have an awareness of the dangers and potential
 workers must be motivated to function safely (behaviour modification);
 workers must be able to function safely; this can be achieved through certification
 the personal working environment should be safe and healthy through the use of
administrative or engineering controls, substitution of less hazardous materials or
conditions, or by the use of personal protective equipment;
 equipment, machinery and objects must function safely for their intended use, with
 provisions should be made for appropriate emergency response in order to limit the
General safety rules provide a framework ensuring positive standards of behaviour for all
staff in the organisation (IAPA, 2008). The responsibilities for safety in the workplace can be
summarised as:
 employees – must adhere to the general safety rules at all times in the organization;
 supervisors – mustensure that all employees within their departments have been
 Health and safety coordinators – develop and maintain current general safety rules
 Management – review and approve all general safety rules, in consultation with the
joint health and safety committee and the health and safety coordinator, prior to
implementation.
3.1 Intoxication
Intoxication is a condition that follows the administration of a psychoactive substance and
results in the disturbance of consciousness, cognition, perception, judgement, affect or
behaviour, or other psychological functions and responses (ILO, 1995). A psychoactive drug
or substance is a substance that when ingested affects mental processes. Employees affected
by drug and alcohol use can cause injury to themselves and others, and damage their physical
and mental health. Workmates of a drug or alcohol user are faced with an increased risk of
injury and disputes, covering for colleagues’ poor work. The consequences which employers
are faced with include late coming and absenteeism, lost time and reduced production and
16
hazards (e.g., through education);
procedures, training and education;
operating controls designed to human capabilities;
consequences of accidents, incidents and injuries.
trained and are working in compliance with the general safety rules;
in consultation with the joint health and safety committees;
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17. Occupational Health & Safety
work quality as a result of incidents and injuries. Losses associated with inefficiency and
damage to plant, equipment and other property can also be incurred.
3.1.1 Alcohol and Other Drug Use
Problems relating to alcohol and drug use may arise from personal, family or social factors or
from certain work situations or from a combination of these elements (ILO, 1995). Such
problems do not only have adverse effects on the health and well-being of workers, but may
also cause difficulties at work including deterioration in job performance. Given that there are
multiple causes of alcohol and drug related problems, there are consequently multiple
approaches to prevention, assistance, treatment and rehabilitation.
 ‘near miss’ incidents;
 violence;
 habitual lateness;
 frequent absences;
 neglect of personal grooming;
 interpersonal problems;
 employee experiencing poor coordination, poor concentration and/or visual
3.1.2 Developing an Alcohol and Drugs Policy
The employer, in consultation with employees and their representatives should develop a
written policy on alcohol and drugs in the workplace (ILO, 1995). The development of such a
policy should be conducted in cooperation with medical personnel and other experts with
specialized knowledge on alcohol or drug related problems. Comprehensive workplace
alcohol and other drug policies apply to all workers in the workplace and include prevention,
education, counseling and rehabilitation arrangements. As a minimum, a policy on alcohol
and drugs in the workplace should contain information and procedures on:
 measures to reduce alcohol or drugs related problems in the workplace through
proper management of personnel, good employment practices, improved working
conditions, proper arrangement of work, consultation between management,
employees and their representatives;
 measures to prohibit or restrict the availability of alcohol and drugs in the workplace;
 prevention of alcohol or drugs related problems through information, education,
 identification, assessment and referral of those with alcohol or drugs related
 measures relating to intervention, treatment and rehabilitation of individuals with
 rules governing conduct in the workplace relating to alcohol and drugs, the violation
of which could result in invoking disciplinary procedures up to and including
dismissal;
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Some indicators that can suggest the presence of alcohol and other drug misuse include:
disturbance.
training, and any other relevant programmes;
problems;
alcohol or drugs related problems;
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18. Occupational Health & Safety
 equal opportunities for persons who have, or who have previously had alcohol or
3.1.3 Drug and Alcohol Awareness
The promotion of a drug and alcohol free a workplace is of paramount importance, and
employers can encourage this culture by providing the necessary information and education
to all employees. Information should be well publicised within the workplace and included in
induction and ongoing training. Employees should be aware of the issues associated with the
misuse of drugs and alcohol, and its serious consequences for workplace health and safety.
3.1.4 Employee Support Services
Employees should be informed about avenues for counseling and support services, which can
be accessed through their GP, the local community health centre or an employee assistance
program (EAP) where available. EAPs may add to the effectiveness of a workplace alcohol
and other drugs policy. Employees who are identified by supervisors or themselves as having
an alcohol or drug problem could be assisted through recognised treatment or an EAP where
available. A workplace alcohol and other drugs policy should not rely solely upon an EAP.
3.1.5 Assessment
Employers and workers and their representatives should jointly assess the effects of alcohol
and drug use in the workplace. The following indicators should provide useful information
for identifying and assessing the nature and size of the problem:
 national and local surveys
 surveys from similar enterprises;
 absenteeism (incidences of unauthorised leave and late-coming);
 use of sick leave;
 staff turnover;
 alcohol consumption in the canteen, cafeteria or dining area;
 opinions of supervisors, managers, and workers and their representatives and
3.1.6 Alcohol and Other Drugs Testing
The application of drug testing, as a means of managing alcohol and other drug related risks,
has a number of significant limitations:
• a positive test for alcohol and other drugs is not in itself evidence of impairment of
ability to perform or intoxication. This is particularly so in relation to the presence of
a drug (other than alcohol) where there is much less international consensus on the
relationship between the measured level of a drug (or its metabolite) and levels of
impairment;
• if a worker refuses to be tested it cannot be presumed that they are intoxicated;
• workers have a legal right to refuse to be tested, unless specific legislation, contracts
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drugs related problems in accordance with national laws and regulations.
occupational health and safety personnel.
or employment agreements provide otherwise;
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19. Occupational Health & Safety
• the reliability of testing can be subject to legal challenge due to varying accuracy
Consultations need to be made with employees, OHS representatives and union
representatives before the decision to use alcohol and other drug testing. Agreement may be
sought where a risk assessment has identified that there are risks involved in undertaking
certain activities whilst under the influence of alcohol and other drugs. Privacy,
confidentiality and the legal position of employees and management also need to be
considered. Workplace alcohol and other drug testing should be introduced if there are
existing legislative provisions, such as those relating to rail safety workers, passenger
transport workers and heavy vehicle drivers. There is also legislation prohibiting employees
from working while intoxicated in the mining and aviation industries. Employees should be
informed about drug and alcohol testing expectations before commencing employment.
3.2 Authorised Entry in Work Areas
Highrisk areas in the workplace should be designated as restricted work areas, with entry
limited to authorised personnel(Spellman, et al, 2005); wherein "authorised personnel" are
workers who are qualified to perform the work, have been designated by the employer as
being permitted to do so, and are required to be present within the designated work area(s).
Standard operating procedures (SOPs) should be developed and implemented in relation to
access controlled (restricted) areas, which should be communicated to all members of staff.
3.2.1 Permit to Work System
The ‘Permit to Work’ system provides a level of control to ensure risks associated with
certain work types and areas are eliminated or minimised to prevent incidents occurring in the
workplace(Spellman, et al, 2005).An entry supervisor (qualified and competent person) must
authorise entry, prepare and sign written permits, order corrective measures if necessary and
cancel permits when work is completed. The permit system is a formalised process to control
work and access to identified areas designed to prevent incidents in the workplace. The
written system is used to control certain types of work or work areas that are potentially
hazardous and contains a permit to work document which specifies the work to be done and
the precautions to be taken. This process authorises work only after safe procedures have
been defined and they provide a clear record that all foreseeable hazards have been
considered.
i. Identification of access controlled areas – aprocess is undertaken for the
identification of workplaces or work locations requiring controlled access
arrangements for all potential high risk areas within the establishment.
ii. Risk assessment – to identify the hazards in the workplace; this will be used to make
a determination as to the type of access control to be implemented. Consideration will
be given to the following:
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rates.
3.2.2 General Requirements
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20. Occupational Health & Safety
• the skill level or specific qualification requirements of those required to enter the
• the effectiveness of current control measures if any exist;
• the potential for injury to employees and others without access arrangements
iii. Communication – may bethrough site maps or site plans which identify specific
areas requiring access control. Alternative arrangements for the identification of
specific areas requiring access control must be defined in standard operating
procedures. Adequate warning signs must also be displayed at or near any identified
accessing control areas.
3.2.3 Permit Issue
All thework activities that require a permit to be approved by authorised persons for the work
to commencemust be clearly identified, which may include:
Therequirements and details of the work activity are discussed between the permit issuer and
the permit receiver. Work that extends over multiple permits issued requires communication
and a handover of the relevant information pertaining to the job.
3.2.4 Permit Authorisation
The work to be done may only commence after the appropriate permit has been approved,
and the employer must ensure that a list of permit issuers who may issue and cancel permits
is approved by management, and prominently communicated to all staff. The permit must
include the methods to be used and precautions to be taken by parties beforehand. The
signature authorising the permit confirms that the required isolations have been made and
precautions taken, except where these can only be taken during the work.
3.2.5 Preparation of Work Area
In order to eliminate or minimize the risk of incident such as potential for fire, explosion, or
exposure of persons to a hazardous substance, the work area must be prepared accordingly.
Precautionary measures may include the following, as appropriate:
• identification of equipment to be worked on;
• energy isolation of the equipment;
• removal of hazardous substances in the work area that may be impacted by the work;
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location;
being implemented.
• energy isolation including working with electrical installations;
• fire alarm isolation;
• confined space entry;
• excavation work;
• hot work;
• roof access;
• removal of asbestos;
• demolition work.
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• preparation of piping such as sewers, drain that may have the presence of hazardous
• provision of appropriate rescue or fire-protection equipment;
• where required, atmospheric testing of the work environment for the flammable or
i. Acceptance – the permit receiver should sign on the permit to confirm that they
ii. Communication – the permit receiver is required to communicate the requirements
specified on the permit to any workers involved in the work described in the permit.
If at any time conditions in the workplace change, the permit receiver must stop
work and communicate this to the permit issuer.
3.2.7 Arrival at Site
Theemployee/contractor must notify the appropriate person within the building/area of their
arrival to perform specified work upon arrival at the work area.
3.2.7.1 Work commencement
Theemployee/ contractor must ensure that the site is controlled as per the requirements
identified on the permit before any work can commence. The employee/contractor must
complete the work only as detailed in the permit and their contract/ job specifications.
Access to restricted areas will be granted for the duration of the permit via key access
procedures, if appropriate. In the event that the work extends beyond the timeframe of the
permit, the permit holder must communicate this to the permit issuer, and ensure that a new
permit is received before for the existing permit expires for continuation of the job.
3.2.7.2 Duration
As conditions in the work environment may change permits are valid only for a specific
period of time. Work permits shall be valid until the specified date on the work permit. Hot
work permits are valid for eight hours.
3.2.7.3 Gas test
Gas testing, which is required for hot work and confined space entry permits shall be
conducted by a person who is competent in the gas test operations and the use of the relevant
equipment. The test instrument shall have current calibration, which shall be displayed on
the unit. The instrument type, serial number and date of calibration due shall be recorded on
the permit. Testing for the presence of any flammable gas or vapours shall take place as late
as practical before the commencement of hot works but no longer than two hours before.
3.2.7.4 Hot Work
The concentration of any flammable gas or vapours shall not be more than 5 percent of its
lower explosion limit (LEL).
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or flammable substances;
hazardous vapours and oxygen content.
3.2.6 Permits Receipt
understanding the work to be done, hazards involved and precautions required.
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3.2.7.5 Confined Space
As a minimum a permit to enter a confined space, following conditions must be
met(Spellman, et al, 2005):
• the confined space contains an oxygen level of 21%;
• the concentration of flammable contaminant in the atmosphere is below 5% of its
• the atmospheric contaminants in the confined space are reduced to below the relevant
• where the oxygen level is below 21% or atmospheric contaminants cannot be reduced
below relevant exposure levels, entry may only occur with suitable PPE including
supplied air;
• entry shall not occur to a confined space when flammable contaminants are greater
• where a concentration of flammable contaminant is found to be more than 5% and
less than 10% of its LEL, all persons leave the confined space unless a continuous
monitoring, suitably calibrated flammable contaminant detector is used in the
confined space at all times while persons are present in it;
• where a concentration of flammable contaminant in the atmosphere of a confined
3.2.8 Work Completion and Commissioning
A final inspection of the workplace must be conducted to ensure no hazards remain on work
completion. The person responsible for the work area must be notified before personnel can
leave the site, after which the permit is returned to the issuer. The permit can only be signed
off, once the issuer is satisfied that the work has been completed to job specifications and
safety requirements. The permit receiver should sign the permit stating that the work area is
now ready to be returned to the issuer. On the completion of work and before the work area
or plant is returned to service, a check shall be conducted to ensure:
• the work has been completed;
• any temporary arrangements/ installation such as temporary barricades, excavation
• all personnel and equipment are accounted for;
• the work permit has been cancelled or signed-off as being completed, and
• all related equipment and facilities and fire systems are operational and have been
3.3 Motorised and Mobile Equipment
Many employees are injured lift trucks are inadvertently driven off loading docks, fall
between docks and an unsecured trailer, are struck by a lift truck, or fall while on elevated
pallets (Spellman, et al, 2011). PITs are used for manual handling of materials when the loads
are too heavy or bulky to be handled manually. The main types of PITs include:
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LEL;
exposure standards;
than or equal to 5% LEL or where oxygen exceeds 23.5%;
space is found to be 10% of its LEL or more, all persons leave the confined space.
NB. If work stops for a period of more than one hour a new gas test will be required.
holes, etc have been removed;
inspected and tested appropriately.
 lift trucks such as forklifts;
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While they are more efficient than manually handling materials, industrial trucks pose
physical hazards like any other vehicle. To use this equipment safely, the company must:
 evaluate and establish a safe work environment where the truck will be used – design
 select the proper vehicle for the job and ensure that it meets or exceeds safety
Fork-lift trucks represent a special type of mobile machine which has become commonplace
in factories, warehouses and large shops. Fork-lift trucks are designed to lift relatively heavy
loads, most commonly, at the front of the vehicle, although there are some side-loading
trucks. If the load is too heavy, then the truck can be tipped over. Also if the truck is unevenly
loaded or driven on sloping or uneven ground or cornered at excessive speed, then the
stability of the vehicle can be affected, resulting in either shedding of the load, or turning
over if the load is raised to a high level, as the centre of gravity of the vehicle is raised.
Operators, SHE representative and inspectors should be familiar with the information that is
required to be displayed on fork-lift trucks as follows:
The details should be recorded when investigating any accident or dangerous occurrence
involving fork-lift trucks.
3.3.1 Safe Work Environment
When making a decision to use powered trucks in a plant, warehouse or store, the following
questions must be answered (Spellman, et al, 2011):
 will it be used outside in inclement weather, ice, snow, rain, and so on?
 are there flammable liquids, vapours, or explosive dusts to consider?
 are the areas where it is going to be driven equipped with guardrails, ramps, adequate
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 crane trucks;
 tractors and trailers;
 motorised hand trucks;
 automated guided vehicles (AGVs).
the plant to accommodate moving vehicles;
requirements;
 screen and train the drivers;
 set up an inspection and maintenance programme for the trucks;
 review the safety programmes, accidents and trends.
 the manufacturer’s name;
 the type of truck;
 the serial number;
 the unladen weight
 the lifting capacity;
 the load centre distance;
 the maximum lift height.
clearances, smooth pavements or crushed stone?
 is there adequate ventilation for fuel fumes if used indoors?
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 are driving areas equipped with warning signs, alarms, corner mirrors, traffic signals,
 is there adequate lighting around the trick operating area for the driver and other
3.3.2 Selecting a Safe Powered Truck
The most commonly used powered trucks are forklifts or platform style lift trucks, where the
operator stands on the vehicle, sits on the vehicle, or walks alongside the vehicle. The power
source, operator position, or means of engaging the load will determined the type of truck
purchased. The factors to consider when purchasing powered trucks may include (Spellman,
et al, 2011):
 worksite constraints (eg. narrow aisles);
 operator comfort;
 safety features, such as back-up alarms, safety belts, belly switches, overhead
3.3.3 Selecting and Training Drivers
Drivers of PITs should be medically certified as to being fit to safely handle the truck, and the
screening process should include evaluation of their vision, depth perception and hearing
(Spellman, et al, 2011). Any training programmes developed should be based on company
policies, operating conditions, and types of trucks used. Operators of industrial trucks should
use the same defensive techniques as they use on highways to prevent accidents. The
operators are responsible for the care and should never leave a truck unattended, parked in an
aisle or doorway, idle engines for too long, or ignore mechanical problems. The training
provided by the employer to its employees should be largely practical in nature, and should
be provided ‘off-the-job’, so that trainees and instructors are not diverted by other by other
considerations. Testing of trainees should be carried out by continuous assessment as well as
a test or tests of truck operation. The employer should keep records of each employee who
has completed the basic training and testing procedure. The availability of this type of record
in the case of an accident could be helpful to the outcome of investigation.
3.3.4 Inspection and Maintenance
Operators of industrial trucks are required to use preoperational checklists prior to operating a
PIT, and damaged vehicles should be tagged out of operation until repaired and inspected for
safe operation (Spellman, et al, 2011). PITs come with a manufacturer’s maintenance
schedule and a list of preventive, periodic checks for each type of truck. All repair and
maintenance records must be maintained on file, and these can be very useful when
reviewing accidents or analysing safety trends. The operators responsible for such tasks
changing tanks, refuelling, or changing or charging batteries must be trained on the
precautions and be provided with the necessary PPE.
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or other control devices?
employees to see the truck’s movements?
protection cages, and wraparound seats.
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3.3.5 Machine Guarding
Ideally, guards should be designed with the machine and not added on as an afterthought.
Fixed guards must be robust, to withstand severe treatment, adjustable and safe to use. They
should also be capable to protect operators or people in the vicinity against injury. This may
mean that as well as forming a physical barrier, the guard may have additional functions,
such as assisting the removal of toxic fumes or reducing noise to a safe level. Many different
guards are available but, in general, there is an order of preference which is as follows:
3.4 Lock Out Procedures
“Lockout” means to physically neutralise all energies in a piece of equipment before
beginning any maintenance or repair work (IAPA, 2008). Lockouts generally involve:
 stopping all energy flows (for example turning off switches, or valves on supply
 locking switches and valves;
 securing the machine, device, or power transmission line in a de-energised state (for
Employers must develop and implement procedures that render inoperative any source
containing hazardous energy (Tweedy, 2013). Sources of hazardous energy include electrical
systems, pumps, pipelines, valves, and tanks, for which there should be written standard
operating procedures are required for tagout/ lockout. In addition, the employer is required to:
A lockout should be performed to prevent the harm of uncontrolled energies that could cause:
 review the condition of that equipment to ensure that all guards are in place and that
the equipment is ready to begin operations, before using an equipment/ machine that
had been locked out for any reason;
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lines);
example applying blocks or blanks, or bleeding pressure from lines).
• conduct employee training;
• ensure accountability of engaged employees;
• develop appropriate administrative controls;
• maintain a list of authorised tagout/ lockout personnel and specify any restrictions;
• develop procedures for machines that contain more than one source of energy;
• train authorised personnel on all procedures;
• evaluate procedures and retrain annually.
 electrocution (contact with live circuits);
 cuts, bruises, crushing, amputations, death, resulting from:
o entanglement with belts, chains, conveyors, rollers, shafts, impellers;
o entrapment by bulk materials from bins silos or hoppers;
o drowning in liquids in vats or tanks;
o burns (contact with hot parts, materials, or equipment such as furnaces);
o fires and explosions;
o chemical exposures (gases or liquids released from pipelines)
An operator is required to:
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 where the equipment is unsafe, the condition should be reported to the supervisor.
The equipment should be locked with the operator lock and tag before leaving, if the
equipment is to be left unattended to make this report and there is a possibility of
someone else operating it.
 recognise that lock out is needed, and if in doubt, the supervisor should be consulted.
 attach the lock using the required attachments as appropriate. Test operating controls
3.4.1 Develop Procedures
For lockouts to be effective, a clear, well-defined lockout policy supported by administrative
and control procedures and proper training, is essential (IAPA, 2008). A systematic approach
would be to:
Written procedures should be communicated to all employees and departments.
Administrative procedures for lockouts in general should include the following:
3.4.2 Develop Lockout Policy
A written lockout policy should make reference to the company’s general occupational health
and safety policy. It should clearly outline responsibilities, and refer to procedures to be
followed. It should state your company’s intent to protect all employees by:
 identifying all activities and machines, equipment, and processes which require
lockouts (for example, repairs, maintenance, and cleaning of pipelines, tanks, and
machines);
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The person installing lock must:
Ensure that all energy sources are locked out and that ram blocks, etc., are used;
to see that the lockout has been effective;
 attach a tag to the lock or to equipment as required;
 remove lock and tag when the work is finished
 develop a lockout policy
 identify lockout situations
 develop procedures
 train workers
 enforce and update your policy
 notification of lockouts to supervisors;
 use of work permits to authorise lockouts;
 lockout to stay in effect if work is not completed at the end of the shift;
 work permit sign-off on work completion;
 assign responsibility for lockouts;
 only authorised persons to perform lockouts;
 documented procedures for specific lockout situations;
 training on performing lockouts;
 verifying the effectiveness of such training;
 reviewing, updating, and enforcing the lockout policy.
 making the appropriate persons responsible for lockouts;
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3.4.3 Identify Lockout Situations
An assessment is required to be carried out on all processes, machinery, energies, and work
activities to identify where and when lockouts are needed. The major focus of lockouts will
mostly be maintenance work; while major sources of information will include workplace
inspections, and recommendations from the health and safety committee or health and safety
representative. A list of the machines, devices, or processes requiring lockout must be
compiled, against which the energy forms involved are listed. Different energy forms will
require different procedures, and a single machine or system may require more than one
lockout.
 Train all staff in lock out procedures and maintain records of this training;
 Receive reports of locks being cut or removed because of lost keys, etc. and report to
 Ensure that the implementation of lockout procedures as required;
 Co-ordinate work beyond shift with other supervisors as appropriate;
 Control procedures involve developing separate, detailed, written lockout procedures
for each identified machine, device or process that may require to be locked out at
some time. The procedure should identify:
o the person responsible for performing the lockout (for example, operator,
o the person responsible for ensuring that the lockout is properly performed (for
o the energy sources to be controlled by the lockout;
o the location of control panels, power sources (including electrical power boxes),
switches, interlocks, valves, blocking points, relief valves and/or blanking and
bleeding points (review schematics);
o special hazards (for example, a flywheel that spins for minutes after power is
o the personal protective equipment that must be used or worn (for example, eye
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 ensuring that lockouts are performed by authorized persons only;
 developing procedures for each specific lockout situation;
 training those who will perform lockouts;
 verifying the effectiveness of such training;
 reviewing, updating, and enforcing the lockout policy.
3.4.4 Responsibilities
i. Safety Coordinator
management any recommendations as needed
ii. Supervisor
millwright, electrician);
example, maintenance supervisor and/or site supervisor);
removed, electrical capacitors);
protection, electrically insulated foot protection);
o the step by step lockout procedure (that is, who does what, and when);
o the testing procedure to ensure that all energy sources are controlled;
o the step by step procedure for removing the lockout.
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3.5 Safety Signage
Safety signs and colour are valuable tools that play a vital role in protecting the health and
safety of employees and visitors alike (IAPA, 2008). Safety signs are used to:
3.5.1 Categories of Safety Signs
Safety signs that are used in the workplace are classified into three sign categories, which are:
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 draw attention to health and safety hazards;
 point out hazards that may not be obvious;
 provide general information and directions;
 remind employees where personal protective equipment must be worn;
 show where emergency equipment is located; and
 indicate where certain actions are prohibited
 regulatory;
 warning;
 information.
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3.5.2 Sign Types
There are only three types of signs that should be used to communicate a message in the
workplace:
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Category Sub-category Colour
1.1 Prohibition Red and black on white
forbids an action
1.2 Mandatory White on black
requires an action
1. Regulatory
A circle indicates that an
order is in force
2.1 Caution Black on yellow
indicates a
potential hazard
2.2 Danger White on red
indicates a
2. Warning definite hazard
A triangle indicates caution
or danger.
3.1 Emergency White on green
indicates first aid,
health, fire protection,
fire fighting and
emergency equipment
3.2 General Information White on blue
3. Information indicates permission or
A square indicates information public information
Figure 3.1: Categories of Safety Signs
 symbol signs;
 symbol signs with text;
 text signs.
The examples of the different safety signs are illustrated below:
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Symbol Sign Symbol sign Text Sign
with text
1. Regulatory
1.1 Prohibition
1.2 Mandatory
2. Warning
2.1 Caution
2.2 Danger
3. Information
3.1 Emergency
3.2 General Information
Figure 3.2: Sign Types
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4. Introduction
An emergency is defined as “an exceptional event that exceeds the capacity of normal
resources and organisation to cope with” (Alexander, 2002). A workplace emergency is an
unforeseen situation that threatens your employees, customers, or the public; disrupts or shuts
down your operations; or causes physical or environmental damage.The main scope of
emergency planning thus is to reduce the risk to life posed by actual and potential
disasters.Emergency procedures are essential to protect the safety and health of employees
and to minimize property damage; and thus food establishments must have comprehensive
plans of action in the event of an emergency. Personnel must be trained in procedures and the
use of fire protection and emergency equipment. The emergency preparedness/ response plan
of an establishment should have clearly defined roles and responsibilities of the key
personnel involved in emergency evacuations.The types of emergencies which could occur
may include:
It is vital to identify the actions required to limit impact on personnel, property and the
environment. Properly resourced workplaces with a well-practiced emergency response, will
limit the effect of damage or harm to people, property and the environment. As a basic rule,
any emergency response procedure needs to minimise catastrophe to personnel, property and
environment.
4.1 Escape Routes and Assembly Points
When preparing an emergency action plan, the employer must designate primary and
secondary evacuation routes and exits. To the extent possible under the conditions, the
evacuation routes and emergency exits meet the following conditions:
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Unit 4: Emergency Procedures
• serious injury events;
• medical emergencies such as heart attacks;
• site or area evacuations;
• fires and explosions;
• hazardous substances and chemical spills;
• explosions and bomb threats;
• security emergencies, such as armed robbery, intruders and disturbed persons;
• loss of power or structural collapse;
• natural disasters such as floods, storms and bushfires;
• traffic accidents;
• landslides or wall collapses; and
• confined space accidents.
• Clearly marked and well lit;
• Wide enough to accommodate the number of evacuating personnel;
• Unobstructed and clear of debris at all times; and
• Unlikely to expose evacuating personnel to additional hazards.
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Where drawings are prepared that show evacuation routes and exits, these should post them
prominently around the workplace for all employees to see.
One of the most critical tasks after an evacuation is to account for all employees and visitors.
Emergency procedures should clearly identify the assembly points for all work areas which
should be clearly labeled as such. Any confusion in the assembly areas can delay the rescuing
of anyone that could still be trapped in the building, or unnecessary and dangerous search-and-
rescue operations. To ensure the fastest, most accurate accountability of your employees,
• designate assembly areas where employees should gather after evacuating;
• take a head count after the evacuation. Identify the names and last known
• establish a method for accounting for non-employees such as suppliers and
• establish procedures for further evacuation in case the incident expands. This may
consist of sending employees home by normal means or providing them with
transportation to an offsite location.
4.2 Emergency Communication Procedures
The emergency communication plan must include a way to alert employees, including
disabled workers, to evacuate or take other action, and how to report emergencies, as
required. The steps that can be taken include the following:
 Make sure alarms are distinctive and recognized by all employees as a signal to
 implement an emergency communications system to notify employees of the
 stipulate that alarms must be able to be heard, seen, or otherwise perceived by
 tactile devices may also be used to alert employees who would not otherwise be able
 providing an updated list of key personnel such as the plant manager or physician, in
Based on the specific emergencies that may occur in the workplace, there is great need to
ensure that supervisors are aware of all the workplace emergency procedures. It is very
important that each person in the workplace knows exactly:
4.3 Emergency Preparedness Plan
An emergency plan is a “detailed set of procedures for responding to an emergency, such as a
fire or explosion, a chemical spill, or an uncontrolled release of energy” (IAPA, 2007). An
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the emergency action plan must consider the following:
locations of anyone not accounted for and pass them to the official in charge;
customers; and
evacuate the work area or perform actions identified in your plan;
emergency and to contact local law enforcement, the fire department, and others;
everyone (an auxiliary power supply may be necessary in the event of a power cut);
to recognize an audible or visual alarm; and
order of priority, to notify in the event of an emergency during off-duty hours.
• where to find emergency instructions or procedures;
• what to do in an emergency;
• where to find any emergency equipment that may be needed;
• how to operate the equipment;
• how to communicate the emergency and to whom.
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33. Occupational Health & Safety
emergency plan is necessary to keep order, and minimise the effects of the disaster.An
emergency action plan it is important to determine the following:
• conditions under which an evacuation would be necessary;
• a clear chain of command and designation of the person in your business authorized
to order an evacuation or shutdown – designate an “evacuation officer” to assist
others in an evacuation and to account for personnel;
• specific evacuation procedures, including routes and exits. Post these procedures
• procedures for assisting people with disabilities or who do not speak your language;
• designation of what, if any, employees will continue or shut down critical operations
during an evacuation, which people must be capable of recognizing when to abandon
the operation and evacuate themselves; and
As a minimum, the key components of an emergency action plan must include the following:
 emergency escape procedures and escape routes for employees to follow in the event
of an emergency. These procedures should include floor plans that indicate the
appropriate evacuation routes and assembly points;
 accounting for all employees following evacuation (work registers, assembly points);
 the preferred means of reporting fires and other emergencies;
 assigns responsibility for the emergency action plan;
 contains a communication plan element;
 provides adequate training in first aid and CPR;
 provides for an emergency response team which has received training and have
 ensures emergency evacuation, fire or other emergency procedures are regularly
 an up-to-date copy of the layout of the facility indicating where dangerous substances
are located and other information which will help in the event of a fire. This
information should be updated when changes are made to operations and facilities;
 emergency procedures should be tested periodically through fire drills and other
emergency evacuation drills. Results of such drills should be reviewed with
personnel;
Employees and visitors to work sites must be aware of the emergency arrangements for the
site – this is usually part of the induction. Subcontractors who work on site, particularly those
who are not supervised, should also be made aware of the emergency arrangements.
Emergency arrangements should be tested / practised periodically, and a record kept of the
practise. Employees that have an emergency response role must be aware of their
responsibility and provided with the necessary training to fulfil their role. The Emergency
Response Plan must be displayed prominently throughout the workplace to promote
awareness for all employees with respect to any emergency.
In an emergency everyone needs to know what their role is and where they should go. The
workplace should have a very clear step by step list of actions that clearly identifies
everyone’s role in an emergency. This emergency instruction should:
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where they are easily accessible to all employees;
• a system for accounting for personnel following an evacuation.
designated back-ups;
inspected to ensure that they are prominently displayed;
 first aid supplies and equipment should be available in areas of high risk
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4.4 Emergency Evacuation and Response
After the decision to evacuate the entire building has been made by the Fire Department, and
the alarm system activated, the following procedures should be followed:
 At the sound of the alarms, all Emergency Response Team (ERT) personnel should
immediately take their emergency positions and prepare for a full building evacuation,
beginning with the lower most floors. Emergency departments should be called. The
contact numbers of these departments i.e. fire services, ambulance and other medical
rescue operators should be kept in a conspicuous and accessible area within the
workplace.
 Occupants will immediately begin to evacuate the premises under the supervision and
direction of Floor Wardens and Floor Monitors. Elevators are not to be used during a
fire evacuation only stairwells are to be used when exiting the building. Additionally,
inside each stairwell there is one fire extinguisher for use by ERT personnel only.
 Floor Monitors are required to submit a list of individuals who have physical
disabilities or special medical conditions to the ERT. Two co-workers should be
assigned ahead of time to assist individuals with disabilities during an evacuation.
However, Floor Monitors, Wardens, and the Fire Department may also be required to
assist disabled individuals during an emergency evacuation.
 Evacuated personnel shall congregate in the Emergency Evacuation Staging Area and
remain there until a decision is reached to re-occupy the building or send people
home. Floor Monitors will then account for all individuals on their assigned floors or
specific areas of responsibility. If someone is missing, the Fire Department must be
notified immediately of the possibility that someone is still in the building and their
likely whereabouts.
 If and when conditions become safe for occupants to return to the building, the Fire
Department will provide the “all clear” announcement. At this time, building
occupants will be allowed to return to their offices.
 Medical emergencies (e.g. heart attacks, unconsciousness, etc.) during an evacuation
must be immediately reported to the on-site Fire Department and/or paramedics of the
incident.
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• exist for each type of emergency;
• be easily seen and understood both by reading and by signs or pictorial diagrams;
• be regularly practiced so that emergency responses are controlled and safe;
Some of the ways this information can be communicated throughout the workforce is via:
• training (including mock emergency responses conducted on a regular basis);
• inductions’
• maps, signs and pictures; and
• procedures and work instructions
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5. Introduction
Housekeeping is not just cleanliness, it includes keeping work areas neat and orderly;
maintaining halls and floors free of slip and trip hazards; and removing of waste materials
(e.g., paper, cardboard) and other fire hazards from work areas. It also requires paying
attention to important details such as the layout of the whole workplace, aisle marking, the
adequacy of storage facilities, and maintenance (Stranks, 2006). Effective housekeeping can
eliminate some workplace hazards and help get a job done safely and properly. Poor
housekeeping can frequently contribute to accidents by hiding hazards that cause injuries.
Good housekeeping is also a basic part of accident and fire prevention. Effective
housekeeping is an ongoing operation: it is not a hit-and-miss clean-up done occasionally.
Periodic "panic" clean-ups are costly and ineffective in reducing accidents. Good housekeeping
can result in:
• cluttered and poorly arranged work areas;
• untidy or dangerous storage of materials(e.g., materials stuffed in corners,
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Element 5: Housekeeping
• reduced handling to ease the flow of materials;
• fewer tripping and slipping accidents in clutter-free and spill-free work areas;
• decreased fire hazards;
• lower worker exposures to hazardous substances (e.g. dusts, vapours);
• better control of tools and materials, including inventory and supplies;
• more efficient equipment clean up and maintenance;
• better hygienic conditions leading to improved health;
• more effective use of space;
• reduced property damage by improving preventive maintenance;
• less janitorial work;
• improved morale;
• improved productivity (tools and materials will be easy to find).
There are many signs of poor housekeeping the workplace which include:
overcrowdedshelves, etc.);
• dusty, dirty floors and work surfaces;
• items that are in excess or no longer needed;
• blocked or cluttered aisles and exits;
• tools and equipment left in work areas insteadof being returned to roper storage places;
• broken containers and damaged materials;
• overflowing waste bins and containers;
• spills and leaks.
Poor housekeeping can be a cause of accidents, such as:
 tripping over loose objects on floors, stairs and platforms
 being hit by falling objects
 slipping on greasy, wet or dirty surfaces
 striking against projecting, poorly stacked items or misplaced material
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36. Occupational Health & Safety
 cutting, puncturing, or tearing the skin of hands or other parts of the body on
5.1 Elements of an Effective Housekeeping Program
5.1.1 Dust and Dirt Removal
In some jobs, enclosures and exhaust ventilation systems may fail to collect dust, dirt and
chips adequately. Vacuum cleaners are suitable for removing light dust and dirt. Industrial
models have special fittings for cleaning walls, ceilings, ledges, machinery, and other hard-to-
reach places where dust and dirt may accumulate. Special-purpose vacuums are useful for
removing hazardous substances. For example, vacuum cleaners fitted with HEPA (high
efficiency particulate air) filters may be used to capture fine particles of asbestos or
fiberglass. Dampening (wetting) floors or using sweeping compounds before sweeping
reduces the amount of airborne dust. The dust and grime that collect in places like shelves,
piping, conduits, light fixtures, reflectors, windows, cupboards and lockers may require
manual cleaning. Compressed air should not be used for removing dust, dirt or chips from
equipment or work surfaces.
5.1.2 Employee Facilities
Employee facilities need to be adequate, clean and well maintained. Lockers are necessary
for storing employees' personal belongings. Washroom facilities require cleaning once or
more each shift. They also need to have a good supply of soap, towels plus disinfectants, if
needed. If workers are using hazardous materials, employee facilities should provide special
precautions such as showers, washing facilities and change rooms. Some facilities may
require two locker rooms with showers between. Using such double locker rooms allows
workers to shower off workplace contaminants and prevents them from contaminating their
"street clothes" by keeping their work clothes separated from the clothing that they wear
home. Smoking, eating or drinking in the work area should be prohibited where toxic
materials are handled. The eating area should be separate from the work area and should be
cleaned properly each shift.
5.1.3 Surfaces
Floors: Poor floor conditions are a leading cause of accidents so cleaning up spilled oil and
other liquids at once is important. Allowing chips, shavings and dust to accumulate can also
cause accidents. Trapping chips, shavings and dust before they reach the floor or cleaning
them up regularly can prevent their accumulation. Areas that cannot be cleaned continuously,
such as entrance ways, should have anti-slip flooring. Keeping floors in good order also
means replacing any worn, ripped, or damaged flooring that poses a tripping hazard. Walls:
Light-coloured walls reflect light while dirty or dark-coloured walls absorb light. Contrasting
colours warn of physical hazards and mark obstructions such as pillars. Paint can highlight
railings, guards and other safety equipment, but should never be used as a substitute for
guarding. The program should outline the regulations and standards for colours.
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projecting nails, wire or steel strapping.
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37. Occupational Health & Safety
5.1.4 Maintain Light Fixtures
Dirty light fixtures reduce essential light levels. Clean light fixtures can improve lighting
efficiency significantly.
5.1.5 Aisles and Stairways
Aisles should be wide enough to accommodate people and vehicles comfortably and safely.
Aisle space allows for the movement of people, products and materials. Warning signs and
mirrors can improve sight-lines in blind corners. Arranging aisles properly encourages people
to use them so that they do not take shortcuts through hazardous areas. Keeping aisles and
stairways clear is important. They should not be used for temporary "overflow" or
"bottleneck" storage. Stairways and aisles also require adequate lighting.
5.1.6 Spill Control
The best way to control spills is to stop them before they happen. Regularly cleaning and
maintaining machines and equipment is one way. Another is to use drip pans and guards
where possible spills might occur. When spills do occur, it is important to clean them up
immediately. Absorbent materials are useful for wiping up greasy, oily or other liquid spills.
Used absorbents must be disposed of properly and safely.
5.1.7 Tools and Equipment
Tools require suitable fixtures with marked locations to provide orderly arrangement, both in
the tool room and near the work bench. Returning them promptly after use reduces the chance
of being misplaced or lost. Workers should regularly inspect, clean and repair all tools and
take any damaged or worn tools out of service.
5.1.8 Maintenance
The maintenance of buildings and equipment may be the most important element of good
housekeeping. Maintenance involves keeping buildings, equipment and machinery in safe,
efficient working order and in good repair. This includes maintaining sanitary facilities and
regularly painting and cleaning walls. Broken windows, damaged doors, defective plumbing
and broken floor surfaces can make a workplace look neglected; these conditions can cause
accidents and affect work practices. A good maintenance program provides for the
inspection, maintenance, upkeep and repair of tools, equipment, machines and processes.
5.1.9 Waste Disposal
The regular collection, grading and sorting of scrap contribute to good housekeeping
practices. It also makes it possible to separate materials that can be recycled from those going
to waste disposal facilities. Allowing material to build up on the floor wastes time and energy
since additional time is required for cleaning it up. Placing scrap containers near where the
waste is produced encourages orderly waste disposal and makes collection easier. All waste
receptacles should be clearly labelled (e.g., recyclable glass, plastic, scrap metal, etc.).
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38. Occupational Health & Safety
5.1.10 Storage
Good organization of stored materials is essential for overcoming material storage problems
whether on a temporary or permanent basis. There will also be fewer strain injuries if the
amount of handling is reduced, especially if less manual materials handling is required. The
location of the stockpiles should not interfere with work but they should still be readily
available when required. Stored materials should allow at least one meter (or about three feet)
of clear space under sprinkler heads. Stacking cartons and drums on a firm foundation and
cross tying them, where necessary reduces the chance of their movement. Stored materials
should not obstruct aisles, stairs, exits, fire equipment, emergency eyewash fountains,
emergency showers, or first aid stations. All storage areas should be clearly marked.
Flammable, combustible, toxic and other hazardous materials should be stored in approved
containers in designated areas that are appropriate for the different hazards that they pose.
5.2 Stacking of Materials
Poorly stacked materials in storage can createhazards for employees; and employers should
ensure that workers aware of such factors as the materials' height and weight, how accessible
the stored materials are to the user, and the condition of the containers where the materials
are being stored when stacking and piling materials (Stranks, 2006). To prevent creating
hazards when storing materials, employers must do the following:
 keep storage areas free from accumulated materials that cause tripping, fires, or
 place stored materials inside buildings that are under construction and at least 6 feet
from hoist ways, or inside floor openings and at least 10 feet away from exterior
walls;
 separate non-compatible material; and
 equip employees who work on stored grain in silos, hoppers, or tanks, with lifelines
In addition, workers should consider placing bound material on racks, and secure it by
stacking, blocking, or interlocking to prevent it from sliding, falling, or collapsing.
5.2.1 Safeguards in Stacking Materials
The stacking of materials can be dangerous if workers do not follow safety guidelines, as
falling materials and collapsing loads can crush or pin workers, causing injuries or death. To
help prevent injuries when stacking materials, workers must do the following:
 stack lumber no more than 16 feet high if it is handled manually, and no more than 20
 remove all nails from used lumber before stacking;
 stack and level lumber on solidly supported bracing;
 ensure that stacks are stable and self-supporting;
 do not store pipes and bars in racks that face main aisles to avoid creating a hazard to
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explosions, or that may contribute to the harbouring of rats and other pests;
and safety belts.
feet if using a forklift;
passers-by when removing supplies;
 stack bags and bundles in interlocking rows to keep them secure; and
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 stack bagged material by stepping back the layers and cross-keying the bags at least
 store baled paper and rags inside a building no closer than 18 inches to the walls,
 band boxed materials or secure them with cross-ties or shrink plastic fiber;
 stack drums, barrels, and kegs symmetrically;
 block the bottom tiers of drums, barrels, and kegs to keep them from rolling if stored
 place planks, sheets of plywood dunnage, or pallets between each tier of drums,
 chock the bottom tier of drums, barrels, and kegs on each side to prevent shifting in
 stack and block poles as well as structural steel, bar stock, and other cylindrical
 paint walls or posts with stripes to indicate maximum stacking heights for quick
 observe height limitations when stacking materials;
 consider the need for availability of the material; and
 stack loose bricks no more than 7 feet in height. (When these stacks reach a height of
4 feet, taper them back 2 inches for every foot of height above the 4-foot level. When
masonry blocks are stacked higher than 6 feet, taper the stacks back one-half block for
each tier above the 6-foot level.)
5.3 Demarcation and Colour Coding
Demarcation is the act of creating a boundary around a place, plant/equipment and fragile
materials for safety purposes. Colour coding is a system for displaying information by using
different colours (IAPA, 2007).Colour can be used to indicate hazards or point out safety
equipment. For example, colour can be applied on:
5.3.1 Indicator Lights or Buttons
The extensive use of colour in everyday life, allows for the association of certain colours with
specific meanings. For example, red on a traffic light means stop. These associations should
be taken advantage of in the workplace to help employees easily recognize the message
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every ten layers (to remove bags from the stack, start from the top row first).
During materials stacking activities, workers must also:
partitions, or sprinkler heads;
on their sides;
barrels, and kegs to make a firm, flat, stacking surface when stacking on end;
either direction when stacking two or more tiers high; and
materials to prevent spreading or tilting unless they are in racks.
In addition, workers should do the following:
reference;
• indicator lights or buttons;
• pipes;
• separate work areas;
• machinery;
• vehicles;
• aisles, floors and stairs.
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40. Occupational Health & Safety
associated with the colour and respond quickly, as in the case of indicator lights and control
buttons:
5.3.2 Piping Systems
There are many ways you can identify the contents of pipes. The law, however, requires you
to train your workers on the identification system you use. A way of ensuring that your
employees have a clear understanding of what a pipe contains is by:
Green Liquids that are not hazardous by nature Liquids, liquid admixtures
flammable, or explosive;
chemically active or
toxic; radioactive; or
under extreme
temperatures
5.3.3 Other Applications for Safety Colours
Safety colours are also useful in work areas, and on equipment and machinery. The safety
colours and their meanings are listed below:
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Colour Indicator Light Button/ Control
Red Danger or alarm Stop/ off
Yellow Caution Caution or intervention needed
Green Safe condition Start/ on
• labeling the pipe with a tag that clearly identifies the material inside;
• attaching the appropriate symbol, if the material is a controlled product;
• painting the pipe with a safety colour.
Safety colours conventionally used for pipes in the workplace include:
Colour Classification Example
Red Fire quenching materials*never paint Water, foam, carbon
sprinkler heads dioxide, halon, etc.
Blue Gases that are not hazardous by nature Gas, gaseous admixtures
Yellow Materials that are hazardous by nature Materials that are
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stop bars; stop buttons; fire protection
equipment
crush, or otherwise injure a worker; inside of
movable guards or the inside of transmission
guards for gears, pulleys, chains, etc.; exposed
parts (edges only) of pulleys, gears, rollers,
cutting devices, power jaws, etc.
against, stumbling, falling, tripping or being
caught in-between; storage cabinets for
flammable materials; containers for corrosive or
unstable materials
5.4 Environmental Awareness
Environmental awareness envisions the increasing of awareness and understanding of the
environment so as to be aware of the fragility of the environment and of the interdependence
between the environment and mankind.
5.4.1 Waste Management
Waste management is the collection, transport, processing or disposal, managing and
monitoring of waste materials. The term usually relates to materials produced by human
activity, and the process is generally undertaken to reduce their effect on health, the
environment or aesthetics.
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Colour Meaning Examples
Red Danger or stop Containers of flammable liquids; emergency
Orange Warning Hazardous parts of machines which may cut,
Yellow Caution Physical hazards which might result in striking
Green First aid/ safety First aid kits, stations; stretchers; emergency
equipment/ emergency showers; emergency exit routes
egress
Blue Safety information Signs requiring use of personal protective
equipment (PPE)
5.4.1.1 Waste Hierarchy and Waste Segregation
The waste hierarchy
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42. Occupational Health & Safety
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 Identifies and ranks sustainable ways of dealing with waste
 Methods are ranked from ‘Least preferable’(Bottom) to ‘Most preferable’(Top)
 Done based on the method’s impact on the environment.
5.4.1.2 Source reduction
(Waste avoidance and minimisation)
 Most desirable and effective option
 Means reducing waste at the source
May include:
◦ Toxicity Reduction
◦ Redesigning of products
◦ Bulk purchasing
◦ Reduction in packaging
 Source reduction is important and the most preferred because:
◦ It saves natural resources
◦ Conserves energy
◦ Reduces pollution
◦ Saves money
5.4.1.3 Waste reduction
 Reuse/recycle involves a series of activities that include:
◦ Collection of used, reused or unused items considered waste
◦ Sorting and processing the recyclable products into raw materials
◦ Re-manufacturing the raw materials into new products
 Reuse/recycling
◦ Recycling prevents or lowers the emission of many pollutants
◦ Saves energy
◦ Supplies raw materials to industry
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 Waste that cannot be reduced at the source or recycled or minimized through
5.4.1.5 Waste disposal
Waste disposal involves the transfer of a pollutant to the environment. After treatment or
recovery of waste, residues are disposed of and this must be done safely to minimize their
potential for release into the environment.
◦ Recyclables: waste that can be recycled (e.g. glass, paper, plastic, metals)
◦ Non-recyclables: Waste that cannot be recycled (e.g. fruit peelings, soiled
 Waste containers are coloured and labelled appropriately to visually identify the waste
 Not that these colours can be changed depending on availability of waste receptacles
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◦ Creates jobs
◦ Reduces the need for landfills
◦ Introduces new technologies
5.4.1.4 Waste recovery (treatment)
treatment
 Treatment methods must be in accordance with standards and regulations
 Examples of treatment methods include:
◦ Incineration
◦ Steam sterilisation
 Disposal methods include:
◦ Landfills
5.4.1.6 Waste segregation
Involves the separation of waste at the source based on its properties
 Waste must first be classified into
◦ Solid waste
◦ Hazardous and non-hazardous waste
◦ Dangerous waste
◦ Toxic waste, etc
 Non-hazardous waste can further be segregated into two categories
wipes, weeds, etc)
 Hazardous waste must be disposed of through services of approved waste carriers
5.4.2 Colour Coding of Waste Receptacles
contained therein
 Waste receptacles containing recyclable waste are coloured green
 Waste receptacles containing non-recyclable waste are coloured orange
 Plastic waste bags can also be colour coded
◦ Red for medical waste (usually)
◦ Orange for non-recyclable waste
◦ Green or black for Recyclable waste
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