Pastos y Forrajes vol. 40 no. 1, 2017

Vol. 40, No. 1, January-March, 2017 / NRS 0099
ISSN 0864-0394 (printed version) / ISSN 2078-8452 (online version)
Quarterly journal. Official organ of the Ministry of Higher Education for pastures and forages | 1978
MISSION: to disseminate research results,
development of technologies and innovation,
related to the farming sector.
EDITORIAL POLICY: publication designed
for national and foreign researchers, professors
of universities and institutes of technical educa-
tion, farming entrepreneurs, organizations that
promote rural development, decision-makers
linked to the farming sector, livestock farmers
and producers.
Thejournalpublishesscientificpapers(research
papers, review papers, short communications,
technical notes, case studies, opinions and re-
flections) which contribute to the knowledge of
agricultural sciences and territorial rural deve-
lopment.
The publication of the contributions will depend
on the approval of the Editorial Board, which
will be supported on the opinion of the Scienti-
fic Committee. The revision of the papers inclu-
des a previous editorial evaluation, in which the
following aspects are reviewed: 1) fulfillment of
thejournalguidelines;2)novelty;3)qualityofthe
title, abstract, keywords and references; as well
as an academic evaluation made according to the
double-blind peer-review system, to guarantee
theimpartialityoftheprocess.
Asgeneralrule,nomorethansixauthorsshould
appear.Onlythosewhoparticipatedinsufficient
degreetoassumethepublicresponsibilityofthe
contentofthepaper,whocededthecontribution
for its editorial reproduction, will be considered
as authors. They are responsible for the results,
criteria and opinions that appear in the papers.
All contributions can be copied, used, disse-
minated and publicly exposed, as long as the
authorship and original source of their publi-
cation (journal, editorial) are cited and they
are not used for commercial purposes.
TOPICS
• Introduction, evaluation and dissemination of
plant genetic resources related to the farming
sector.
• Agroecological management of production
systems.
• Sustainable livestock production.
• Conservation of forages and agroindustrial
byproducts for animal feeding.
• Agroforestry for animal and agricultural
production.
• Integrated food and energy production
systems in rural areas.
• Utilization of alternative medicine in tropical
farming systems.
• Adaptation to and mitigation of the climate
change in farming ecosystems.
• Economic, managerial and social aspects of
farming production.
• Extension, agricultural innovation and
technology transference.
• Rural and local development.
ESTACIÓN EXPERIMENTAL DE PASTOS Y FORRAJES INDIO HATUEY
EDITORIAL COUNCIL
Editor-in-Chief | Dr. Osmel Alonso Amaro
Assistant Editor | Dra. Tania Sánchez Santana
Editor-Agricultural Sciences | Dra. Marta Hernández Chávez
Editor-Veterinary Sciences | Dr. Javier Arece García
Editor-Social Sciences | Dr. Antonio Suset Pérez
EDITORIAL COMMITTEE
Dr. Jesús Suárez Hernández | Dra. Maybe Campos Gómez
Dra. Marlen Navarro Boulandier | Dra. Hilda Machado Martínez
Dra. Maykelis Díaz Solares | Dr. Jesús M. Iglesias Gómez
Dr. Marcos Esperance Matamoros | Dra. Saray Sánchez Cárdenas
Dr. Anesio R. Mesa Sardiñas | Dr. Luis Hernández Olivera
Dr. Luis Lamela López | Dra. Odalys C. Toral Pérez
Dr. Giraldo J. Martín Martín | M.Sc. Onel López Vigoa
Dra. Mildrey Soca Pérez | M.Sc. Milagros Milera Rodríguez
Dr. Félix Ojeda García | M.Sc. Yolai Noda Leyva
SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE
Dra. Sonia Jardines González | Universidad de Matanzas, Cuba
Dra. Angela Borroto Pérez | Centro de Investigaciones en Bioalimentos, Cuba
Dr. Aníbal E. Fernández Mayer | Instituto Nacional de Tecnología
Agropecuaria, Argentina
Dr. Argemiro Sanavria | Universidad Federal Rural de Rio de Janeiro, Brasil
Dr. Tyrone J. Clavero Cepeda | Universidad de Zulia, Venezuela
Dr. José M. Palma García | Universidad de Colima, México
Dr. Oscar Romero Cruz | Universidad de Granma, Cuba
Dr. Carlos J. Bécquer Granados | Estación Experimental de Pastos y Forrajes
de Sancti SpÍritus, Cuba
Dr. Rodobaldo Ortíz Pérez | Instituto NACIONAL de Ciencias agrícolas, CUBA
Dr. Pedro C. Martín Méndez | Instituto de Ciencia Animal, Cuba
Dr. Pedro P. del Pozo Rodríguez | Universidad Agraria de La Habana, Cuba
Dr. Redimio Pedraza Olivera | Universidad de Camagüey, Cuba
Dr. Rafael S. Herrera García | Instituto de Ciencia Animal, Cuba
Dr. Pedro José González Cañizares | Instituto Nacional de ciencias agrícolas, CUBA
Dr. Ángel Arturo Santana Pérez | Universidad de Granma, Cuba
SUPPORT COMMITTEE
Editing and correction | Estación Experimental DE PASTOS Y FORRAJES
Indio Hatuey, Cuba
M.Sc. Alicia Ojeda González
Design and editing
Dailys Rubido González

Translation
B.A. Nidia Amador Domínguez
Bibliography proof-reader
B.A. Nayda Armengol López
Cover design
B.A. Israel de Jesús Zaldívar Pedroso

Vol. 40, No. 1, January-March / 2017
Revista Trimestral. Órgano oficial del Ministerio de Educación Superior para el área de los pastos y forrajes
Quarterly journal. Official organ of the Ministry of Higher Education for pastures and forages
PASTURE AND FORAGE
RESEARCH STATION
INDIO HATUEY
INDEX
SciELO
SciELO Citation Index Web of Science
Electronic Journals Index (SJSU)
REDALYC
CAB Abstracts
AGRIS (FAO)
PERIODICA (México)
BIBLAT (México)
Open Science Directory
REGISTER
DOAJ
Fuente académica de EBSCO
LATINDEX
Cubaciencia
Actualidad Iberoamericana (Chile)
PERI (Brasil)
TROPAG (Holanda)
ORTON (Costa Rica)
BAC (Colombia)
AGROSI (México)
EMBRAPA (Brasil)
Forrajes Tropicales (CIAT)
Ulrich’s International
Periodicals Directory
Catálogo de Publicaciones
Seriadas Cubanas
Catálogo colectivo COPAC(ReinoUnido)
Catálogo colectivo SUDOC (Francia)
Catálogo colectivo ZDB (Alemania)
Papers to be considered by the
editorial committee, please contact:
Dr.C. Osmel Alonso Amaro
/ osmel@ihatuey.cu
© 2017. Estación Experimental
de Pastos y Forrajes Indio Hatuey
Central España Republicana,
CP 44280, Matanzas, Cuba
 (53) (45) 571225 / 571235
http://www.ihatuey.cu
Online
http: //payfo.ihatuey.cu
http: //scielo.sld.cu
CONTENT
| review paper|
Reflections about the adoption and extension of a seasonal milk
production model in Camagüey, Cuba
Servando Andrés Soto-Senra, Raúl Victorino Guevara-Viera, Guillermo Emilio
Guevara –Viera, Carlos Javier de Loyola -Oriyés, José Alberto Bertot -Valdés,
Andrés Faustino Senra-Pérezand Lino Miguel Curbelo -Rodríguez.........3
| scientific paper|
Effect of pre-germination treatments on the emergence and initial
growth of Talisia oliviformis (Kunth) Radlk
Maribel del Carmen Ramírez-Villalobos, Aly Segundo Urdaneta-Fernández,
Verónica Chinquinquirá Urdaneta-Ramírez and Danny Eugenio García-
Marrero................................................................................................... 15
| scientific paper|
Effect of planting distance on the yield of Morus alba (L.) var. yu-12
Yolai Noda-Leyva and Giraldo Jesús Martín-Martín...................................... 21
| scientific paper|
Tolerance to salinity in seedlings of Elymus scabrifolius
and Thinopyron ponticum
Carol Gisel Jauregui; María de los Ángeles Ruiz, Ricardo Daniel Ernst.......27
| scientific paper|
Effect of manure on the soil and the soybean [Glycine max
(L.) Merr.] crop
Pedro Cairo-Cairo and Ubaldo Álvarez- Hernández.......................................34
| scientific paper|
Evaluation of the antimicrobial activity of fresh extracts
of Morus alba L. leaves
Maykelis Díaz Solares, Yudit Lugo Morales, Leydi Fonte Carballo, Inelvis Castro
Cabrera, Onel López Vigoa and Iván L. Montejo Sierra......................40
| scientific paper|
In vitro acaricidal activity of the oil from Jatropha curcas L. in engorged
females of Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus
Maykelin Fuentes-Zaldívar, Mildrey Soca-Pérez, Javier Arece-García and. Yuniel
Hernández-Rodríguez............................................................................46
| scientific paper |
Selection and identification of Bacillus spp. isolates from the digestive
tract of backyard chicken, with probiotic potential
Fátima Arteaga-Chávez, Mario López-Vera, Marta Laurencio-Silva, Ana
Rondón-Castillo, Grethel Milián-Florido, Vladimir Barrios-González and
Ramón Bocourt-Salabarría.................................................................... 51
Effect of the presence of shade in sheep grazing areas.
1. Selection of forage species
Omar Encinozo-González, Selina Camacaro-Calvete, Livia Pinto-Santini and Leyla
Ríos-de Álvarez.........................................................................................................61
Effect of the number of parturitions on the productive performance
of Pelibuey and crossbred Pelibuey ewes under production conditions
Yoel López-Leyva, Javier Arece-García, Glafiro Torres-Hernández and Roberto
González-Garduño.................................................................................69

Pastos y Forrajes, Vol. 40, No. 1, January-March, 3-14, 2017 / Seasonal milk production model 3
Review paper
Reflections about the adoption and extension of a seasonal milk
production model in Camagüey, Cuba
Servando Andrés Soto-Senra1
, Raúl Victorino Guevara-Viera1
, Guillermo Emilio Guevara –Viera1
,
Carlos Javier de Loyola -Oriyés2
, José Alberto Bertot -Valdés2
, Andrés Faustino Senra -Pérez·3·
and
Lino Miguel Curbelo -Rodríguez1
.
1
CEDEPA. Facultad de Ciencias Agropecuarias. Universidad de Camagüey. Circunvalación norte km 5,5 e/ Av. Ignacio
Agramonte y Camino viejo a Nuevitas CP 74650, Camagüey, Cuba
2
Facultad de Ciencias Agropecuarias. Universidad de Camagüey. Cuba
3
Instituto de Ciencia Animal. Cuba
E-mail: servando.soto@reduc.edu.cu; sasotos2015@gmail.com
Abstract
In order to reflect on general criteria for the adoption and extension of a seasonal milk production model in
the Camagüey province, considerations are presented related to the possibilities and potentialities of seasonal milk
production based on climate conditions, characteristic of cattle production ecosystems and on the more efficient use
of available resources. Topics are approached linked to the rational management of the pastureland, closely related to
an adequate strategy in reproduction and parturition, whose higher concentration (70-80 %) should coincide with the
period of higher pasture production, taking into consideration the limited use of additional resources, the bio-econo-
mic response, its possible repercussions on the need to assimilate new conceptions and action methods at the different
levels, as well as on the primary production-industry-trade-consumer chain. It is indicated that the implementation of
a seasonal milk production model adapted to the conditions of Camagüey, Cuba, can mean a significant response to
the need of the country to increase productive yields on sustainable bases.
Keywords: food chain, ecosystem, animal production, reproduction
Introduction
Prices in the international market have a re-
markable effect on the acquisition of milk and its
derivatives. In such situation, milk production is
highly important in pastoral systems dedicated
to this purpose, where the achievement of good
bio-economic efficiency is essential and an adjust-
ed relation between the needs of dry matter to be
consumed by the herd, to achieve adequate yields,
and the pasture growth rate per season, is impera-
tive (Soto et al., 2014a).
The economic, political and food insecurity
situations that prevails throughout the world makes
essential the need to increase the productive and ef-
ficiency values, particularly in the farming sector
(Soto et al., 2010a).
Under these circumstances, the promotion of
those activities that ensure incomes and substitute
imports, as well as food production, will be privi-
leged, in order to progressively reduce the existing
dependence on the external market in this subject.
Cuba cannot afford to incur in expenses that can
be substituted by the national production, goal that
must be proposed in the long term. The develop-
ment of agriculture constitutes a matter of national
security (Castro, 2009).
Considering the above-explained facts, the
milk production based on pasturelands has in the
synchronization of the nutritional requirements of
the herd and the growth curve of pastures, its main
food supply strategy or, in other words, maximum
accommodation of the lactation curve of the herd to
the grass growth curve; the greatest concern is not
to obtain high pasture volumes, but to have them
available to be grazed when the cows are produc-
ing (Brancato, 2007). For such reason, the key to
harvest and transform more pasture into milk de-
pends on the ability of the implemented system to
capture the accumulated biomass, before its quality
decreases and part of it is lost (García and Rossi,
2006).
The efficiency of the systems is related to the
procedures that are performed in cattle production
processes and to the performance of the actors that
lead them, who decide the alternatives that are

4 Pastos y Forrajes, Vol. 40, No. 1, January-March, 3-14, 2017 / Servando Andrés Soto-Serna
applied and the way of managing the productive
systems (Vargas et al., 2015). This criterion is an
essential part of the fundamental basis on which
seasonal milk production models are supported and
which has been the key to success in countries from
different latitudes where it has been applied (Bran-
cato, 2007).
In the particular case of New Zealand, a forage-
based diet is given priority. This has allowed
milkings higher than 3 300 kg milk/lactation and
3 000 kg of milk solids/hectare (FEDEGAN, 2013).
Similarly, fertility and parturitions are managed
through a seasonal system, where 95 % of the
parturitions occur in the spring and, thus, the cows
are dried in the autumn. This way the cows are
selected regarding their fertility, and the ones which
do not become pregnant in that season are culled.
This, along with the technological innovations and
the genotypic development of the breed has allowed
the milk production in New Zealand to be done with
the lowest production costs recorded in developed
countries (Jaramillo, 2014).
Ingeneral,theprevailingagro-climateconditions
in the tropical regions determine, in most cases,
the profitability of the exploitations (Domínguez
et al., 2015). Taking into consideration the marked
seasonality of the climate in Cuba and, particularly,
in the Camagüey province, where cattle feeding is
based on pastures and whose growth curve mostly
responds to the changes in temperature, radiation and
rainfall, it is necessary to concentrate parturitions, so
that the lactation curve is accompanied by the grass
productivity curve, which allows more correct use
of the stocking rate and a more efficient production
per area unit. The objective of this work is to reflect
on general criteria for the adoption and extension of
a seasonal milk production model in the Camagüey
province.
I. Premises that support the application
of a seasonal milk production model
The productivity and efficiency of a herd are
mainly determined by the management to which it is
subject, including the control of a large diversity of
factors, such as the quantity of inputs that are applied
to the soil-plant system, its natural potentials, the po-
tential of its animals and the supplements in terms of
quality and quantity, all of it influenced by climate
and decision-making (Pedraza and Justiz, 2015).
Within this variety of factors, the following are
important in milk production: controlled feeding,
management techniques of replacements and cows,
reproductive management and organization, agri-
cultural management of pastures and forages, orga-
nization of the operations and management of the
financial and environmental resources, as well as
the knowledge-information dyad; thus, it is consi-
dered a very complex activity.
In such countries as New Zealand, with a dairy
industry which is evaluated from the primary pro-
ducer to the market, based on a seasonal model
with parturitions in the early spring, with a high
stocking rate (2,5 cows/ha), high utilization of the
pastureland (90 %) and low or no supplementation,
good efficiency values (90-95 % birthrate) and re-
duced costs: 0,09-0,12 NZD (New Zealand dollar)/
kg of milk, have been achieved, with a conservatio-
nist, competitive and very high quality approach in
the commercial products (Holmes, 2006).
The system with which this country achieved
its competitiveness is the seasonal production, be-
cause it feeds the cows mainly with pastures, and
most important is that the cost of feedstuff must
be compared all the time with the price of milk to
determine which is the most effective. Higher pro-
duction does not always imply higher profit. The in-
comes and the costs of cow per kilogram of feed in
all the participating items must be considered. That
is the way to go (Brancato, 2007).
A large part of the success of the dairy farms in
New Zealand lies on their logistics. Their manage-
ment strategies are based on an assembly of sectors
with common objectives and planned connections,
because it is a cooperative dairy industry. From
all the farms, 63 % are operated by the owners, in
many cases they live on site and they do a great
part of the work; this modality implies that one
person who owns the cows does the work and the
other provides the dairy unit and its maintenance
(Holmes, 2006). Then, it is possible to infer that the
application of a seasonal system in a zone or terri-
tory can, in a first stage, attenuate the deficiency of
the milk in the dry season with the milk offer pro-
duced in the rainy season, conveniently preserved,
and in a second stage, consider results that show a
surplus that allows to reach the market and generate
incomes that are reverted in the productive process
(Soto et al., 2010b).
Definitively, among the key factors to achieve hi-
gher productivity with the genetic potential of the cows
are: higher efficiency of the use of pastures (more pro-
duction and harvest of DM/ha) and the incorporation

of complementation and supplementation strategies
which are more persistent and stable in the year to
minimize the climate risks as well as the eventual
market risks (Gallardo, 2012).
According to Geary et al. (2014), the exploita-
tions of the seasonal milk production profile result
in lower costs and higher net profit of the farm, with
regards to the less seasonal milk production profi-
le. The highest costs are related to the concentra-
te feed, labor, silage, machinery and replacement
heifers. This statement coincides with the report by
Vibart et al. (2012), about the fact that the concen-
tration level of births brings about higher produc-
tivity and higher incomes on the feeding costs per
land unit.
II. Adoption and extension of a seasonal
model in dairy farms of Camagüey,
Cuba
Foundations to implement the seasonal milk
production
It is considered as accepted that, in general,
the climate in Cuba is tropical, seasonally humid,
with sudden changes from November to April, the
driest months and with the lowest temperatures.
The months from May to October have a similar
rain performance in most of the country, including
the Camagüey province, and they show the highest
annual accumulated values of rainfall in May, June
and September and even October (Centro del Cli-
ma, 2016). Thus, it is possible to infer that there are
adequate climate conditions for the establishment
of seasonal milk production models in the territory.
To respond to the main problems of Cuban
livestock production (fig. 1), and particularly of the
Camagüey province, which has a structure mainly
composed by (state and non-state) cooperatives
and whose weight on the national balance is
approximately 20 % (ONEI, 2015), it is important
to aim the greatest efforts at facing in a determinant
way the technological challenges related to the need
not only to improve the availability and quality of the
pasturelands, according to the climate seasonality,
butalsotosearchfor,introduceandapplyconsciously
forms that allow a more efficient management of
pasture as fundamental and irreplaceable source in
cattle feeding, so that higher productive goals are
reached based on the sustainable use of resources,
giving priority to the cooperative sector.
To this end, it is important to consider that
cooperativism emerges from the integration of
control and research sectors; thus groups of cows
can be developed which are adequate for the grazing
system and their own replacement can be guaranteed
(Holmes, 2006). With regards to the topic, several
authors think that, to achieve higher beef and milk
production, it is necessary to apply new work forms

and use resources correctly; new criteria must be
formed in Cuban cattle production (Mena et al.,
2007).
Camagüey is the largest Cuban province and
dedicates 78 % of its agricultural surface to cattle
production, aspiring to reach 140 million kilograms
of milk delivered to the industry (González, 2015).
Nevertheless,inthestudiesconductedindairyfarms
belonging to cooperatives of credits and services
(non-state sector) of this province (Martínez et al.,
2015), positive results were found only in those that
showed better technological conditions, related to
the higher land utilization, number of paddocks,
as well as higher area and proportion of the farm
dedicated to the establishment of cultivated pastures
and forages, in correspondence with the number of
animals.
In general, there is lack of implementation of
milk production systems and/or models, which im-
ply the efficient use of pastures and forages, in or-
der to reach higher and sustainable productions. In
any case, the solution to increase the pasture-based
milk production is not, or will not be, in the higher
use of concentrate feeds, whatever they are, becau-
se the high prices and current policies worldwide
with regards to the use their raw materials such as
biofuels confirm this (Soto et al., 2014a).
In this regard, Uña et al. (2014) found in a farm
belonging to a state cooperative from the “Ruta In-
vasora” enterprise, Ciego de Ávila, a strong seaso-
nality (more than 70 % of births) towards the rainy
season, when the values of birthrate (78 %), milk
production (1 393 kg/ha) and unitary cost of the
product (0,86 CUP/kg) had the best results compa-
red with the other farms, with deficient forage ba-
lance (10,4 t DM/cow/year).
Likewise, in Camagüey, it has been reported
that, under feeding restriction conditions, 1 325 kg
milk/ha can be obtained with more than 60 % of
the parturitions concentrated in April-October (del
Risco et al., 2009) and 1 526 kg milk/ha at a lower
cost (0,59 CUP/kg) with up to 80 % of the partu-
ritions concentrated in April-August (Soto et al.,
2010b).
These and other studies conducted in Cama-
güey, in the state and non-state (Cooperatives of
Credits and Services) cooperative structures, main
milk production form in the territory, have been
focused on the evaluation of the best period to ob-
tain higher milk volumes, considering, among other
factors: season, pasture and forage availability and
quality, performance of reproductive and economic
indicators, concentration level of the births and
their optimum occurrence time. The above-mentio-
ned authors, as well as Uña et al. (2015) coincide in
general on the fact that the province shows favora-
ble climate conditions to establish a seasonal milk
production model, but that it is necessary to make
corrections in the reproduction work and improve
the quality, availability and management of pastu-
res and forages, so that the indispensable requisite
of achieving bioproductive increases in an efficient
and sustainable way is fulfilled.
Seasonal management of the forage basis
It is essential that there is a correct balance
among the stocking rate, pasture management and
supplementary feeding to optimize the yield of the
community in general and the profitability in the
pasture-based milk production (Vibart et al., 2012).
In works conducted in the states of the United
States Gulf coast (Macoon et al., 2011), where the
management in pasture-based milk production
systems has received little attention, it was found
that in the cows fed with less supplements there
was more organic matter consumption of the
forage, associated with higher ingestion and milk
production. The stocking rate had an important
effect on the yield of pastures and animals. Thus,
it was determined that during the cold season the
supplementation with concentrate feeds should
be planned based on the ingestion of energy,
estimated from the forages, to achieve optimum
milk production and ensure the maintenance of the
body condition.
The most significant problem of the grazing
cow feeding starts from the insufficient forage
availability, in both seasons of the year as general
rule; this is accentuated in the eastern half of the
country due to the climate characteristics of this
region, with higher restrictions in the annual rainfall.
This is in addition to the predominance of native
pasture species, which determine pasture areas
with moderate or low quality, exploited on soils
with fertility affected in a higher or lower extent.
However, it is important to remember that in Cuba
there are native and naturalized species, adapted to
each territory, with potentialities that, expressed in
productive terms, allow to obtain 5-6 kg of milk/
cow/day, when they are correctly managed (Pérez-
Infante, 2010), which is not in accordance with the
average values obtained.
In the Mayabeque province, Cuba, Domínguez
et al. (2015) found that the best two-month periods

of milk production were those of the rainy season,
when the highest dry matter yields are produced,
which allows a higher offer per animal per day and
in turn allows a higher selection of the animals with
regards to the dry season. Likewise, studies con-
ducted in scenarios of Camagüey and Ciego de Ávi-
la (Guevara et al., 2010; Pedraza and Justiz, 2015),
showed that the effect of the season on milk pro-
duction is more associated to the increase of pas-
ture availability than to the lower environmental
temperature of the dry season, when the biomass
production decreases.
In correspondence with the above-explained
facts, four important times in the year with regards
to the pasture growth and productivity occur; the
first one, from April to June, as the beginning of
the period of maximum grass growth; second, from
July to September, when the forage production has
its period of maximum yield; third, from October to
December, when the grass growth rate declines ra-
pidly, also called end of the maximum grass growth
period and fourth, from January to March, when
the grass growth is minimum.
Thus, it is possible to reach a higher efficiency
in milk production with those same pasture species,
even under conditions of feeding restriction, con-
centrating the highest number of parturitions in the
first period and that the highest percentage of the
year is not extended beyond half the second period
(Soto et al., 2010b).
The above-stated facts indicate that, without
large investments, there is still much to do regarding
the maximum utilization of the available resources
and with no additional expenses, or what is a more
imperative need at present, using supplementation
really efficiently to increase productive limits. It
is even possible to improve the forage basis, with
low operational costs. In this regard, Senra (2005)
in Cuba, stated that the expenses of rehabilitation
activities were more feasible in cattle production
areas of low pasture productivity, compared with
new plantings, which are much more costly and
have a useful life between 3 and 5 years.
It is not worth either to supplement strongly the
cows before using the cheap pasture available; or
think about another type of investments either,
such as pasture irrigation, until maximizing the
efficacious use of that resource. Then, the intro-
duction of grazing or cutting cultivated grass spe-
cies would correspond to a later stage for reaching
a higher goal of bioproductive efficiency, whose
investment would have a solid basis built upon the
benefits obtained.
Thus, to reach that higher level, the introduc-
tion of improvement strategies of the forage basis
is attractive with regards to seasonal parturitions
on milk production, to improve the availability and
quality of the offer, with recovery of the investment
in a relatively short term, of 12-14 months (Soto
et al., 2010a).
Within those strategies, the inclusion of various
types of trees in cattle production allows the animals
to change their diet and balance it according to their
requirements and potential, which can be manifested
in a higher production. This possibility of selecting
does not exist in the grass monocrop. The term
“nutritional ecology” is suggested to refer to this
effort of providing the type or variety of forage and/
or feedstuff that allows the animal in question to vary
its diet by itself, responding to feedback metabolic
stimuli (Domínguez et al., 2015).
The establishment of areas with clones of
Pennisetum purpureum and protein banks with
Leucaena leucocephala, are alternatives reported
by some authors with possibilities of reaching 7-9
kg/cow/day, numbers close to the results of the
1990’s, with similar stocking rates in associations
of cultivated grasses and shrubby and herbaceous
legumes (de Loyola et al., 2010; Soto et al., 2010a).
An effect on the body condition of the cow is also
reported, whether it is producing or not (de Loyola
et al., 2015).
The forests designed for animal production will
also gradually favor the increase of the biodiversity
of wild species and animals and the recovery of the
nutrients present in the original vegetation from their
extraction from the subsoil (Muñoz et al., 2015).
Similarly, the costs of their establishment can
be lowered, totally reduced and even achieve profits
when short-cycle crops are integrated in that period.
This last element is a frequent practice in pasture
management, which obeys the need to increase the
land utilization efficiency and to obtain an additional
harvest of high-quality forage (Soto et al., 2008;
Herrera, 2015).
Elements of reproduction management
As it was previously stated it is also necessary
to make corrections in the reproduction work. This
is essential in any farming exploitation because it
defines, among others, the structure of the herd, the
relative production potential that is expected of the
cattle production system and the feeding program

that should be established to obtain high and stable
productions (Vargas et al., 2015).
It is known that among the reproduction indexes,
the birthrate and distribution of parturition in the
year have a marked influence on the annual milk
production, incomes and efficiency of the systems.
Likewise, the parturition-parturition interval (PPI) of
the herd, whose periodic analysis is imposed in dairy
exploitations, plays a fundamental role, because it
presupposes the successful continuation in time of the
management practices of the pastureland and the herd.
In Camagüey, Cuba, the existence of seasonality
for the presentation of the estrus has been reported
(Santiesteban et al., 2007), related to the higher
availability of pastures, with sustained trend of
seasonality on the highest values of the indicator
emptycowbetweenthemonthsfromMaytoOctober,
as well as the lowest number of culling of cows in
reproduction. This performance can be conveniently
used in the work of reproduction and the efficient use
of hormonal treatments and artificial insemination,
to achieve the concentration of parturitions.
Thus, in the farms of the Basic Units of Cooperative
Production (UBPCs, for their initials in Spanish),
Jimaguayú municipality, Uña et al. (2015) found
seasonal behaviors in the empty cows (June and
July), pregnant cows and births; as well as in the
milk production, kilogram of milk per hectare and
in the total expenses and incomes.
When due to an induced strategy of parturitions
or at random a concentration of parturitions occurs
in the months of April-August, it should have
favorable effects on the lactation of these animals
and on the economy of the systems, issue that
needs to be accurately quantified to re-orientate a
reproductive strategy of the herds towards higher
bio-economic efficiency, which has been achieved
for different studies in herds of the country (del
Risco et al., 2009; Soto et al., 2014b).
The re-ordering of the reproductive activity
implies, first, performing the highest percentage of
insemination in the months from July to October,
so that the confirmation of the possible pregnancies
is made from October to January of the following
year and a high birth percentage can be achieved in
April-August (table 1).
In this case it is estimated that to establish a solid
seasonalproductionmodel,itisnecessarytoconscious-
ly overcome a first barrier that includes improvements
in the work organization, adequate technological disci-
pline and stable availability of hormones.
The reproductive management is aimed at
achieving a highly concentrated parturition pattern
in order to achieve that a high proportion of cows
adjusts the high demand of nutrients, mainly ener-
gy, inherent to the early lactation with the moment
of higher pasture growth. Thus the production costs
decrease, which allows the grassland under direct
utilization to constitute the main source of nutrients
for cattle (Soto et al., 2010b).
In the Ciego de Ávila province, Soto et al.
(2014b), found parturition concentrations in the
range 76-86 % (April-August), in dairy farms of the
Livestock Production Enterprise “Ruta Invasora”
with productions of 1 126 kg/ha, higher than the
other studied farms, even with regards to the effi-
ciency of the conversion of forage into milk (0,24 t
of milk/t of forage), all under similar conditions of
feeding restriction (less than 11 kg DM/cow/day).
In the situation of the commercial herds of
Camagüey, when because of an induced reproduc-
tive strategy, a concentration of parturitions occurs
at the beginning of grass growth, a favorable effect is
produced on lactation and on the economy of the sys-
tems (Guevara et al., 2010). In this case, it has been
found that when the highest concentration of partu-
ritions occurs between April and August (more than
70 %), even under conditions of feed insufficiency,
the bio-economic results can be significantly im-
proved, and even with the possibility of intensifying,
afterwards, the occurrence of parturitions towards
the months of April and June (de Loyola et al., 2010).
The main limitation for the development and
projection in time of this type of production model is
the high degree of reproductive efficiency the herds
must attain. In late-parturition animals the feeding
conditions improve during part of the dry season,
which favors their level of body reserves at the mo-
Table 1. Re-ordering of the reproductive strategy towards seasonal parturitions.
Indicator Months
Inseminations 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6
Pregnancy diagnosis 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Births 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3

ment of parturition. Such reserves are essential to be
used as energy source in a period characterized by
showing high requirements, while the voluntary in-
take is highly decreased.
Management of dairy farms with regards
to the seasonal parturition
One of the main causes of the low productivity
of cattle is not applying some fundamental, novel and
adjusted principles in a grazing method efficient in
the seasonal topic, without irrigation (Senra, 2009).
When parturitions occur in the early rainy season, a
higher number of milking cows can be achieved and
the milk production increases, due to the higher uti-
lization, because the season directly influences the
pasture availability, growth and development.
The optimum moment for the beginning of
parturitions varies among the different farms,
according to the prevailing agro-climate conditions.
To make the herd requirements coincide it is essential
that, once parturitions start, a high proportion of
the cows start their lactation in the lowest possible
time. Taking into consideration that the nutritional
requirements are maximum around the second month
of lactation, the average parturition date should
precede in similar time lapse the moment of the
highest pasture growth.
Under the production conditions of Cuba,
where feeding depends almost exclusively on pas-
ture, it is necessary to concentrate parturitions in
the season of higher feed availability. This allows
to consider the most efficient use of the stocking
rate and, thus, not to seek the production per animal
so much but rather a more efficient production per
hectare (del Risco et al., 2009).
In short, milk production per hectare, mea-
sured in time, is logically one of the main indica-
tors to evaluate the sustainable character of a dairy
exploitation (Deming et al., 2013).
This is in addition to the conversion value of
forage into milk when parturitions are concentrat-
ed in the period of higher pasture production. In
terms of the meaning of conversion, the possibility
of achieving 0,31 t milk/t of consumed dry matter
with up to 80 % of the parturitions in April-August
has been reported (Soto et al., 2010a) and even up
to 0,59 with more than 60 % of the parturitions in
April-October (del Risco et al., 2009). In both cases,
these results were found in the farms of Camagüey
under low-input conditions.
These results can be considered remarkable
according to the inputs and the quality of the
pasturelands used, even higher than the ones found
in trials with dairy cows on cultivated and fertilized
pastures in Cuba in the 1980’s, where 0,3 kg milk/kg
of pasture used is considered good, as in moderate-
potential cows supplemented after the fifth liter, the
responses have been between 0,3 and 0,6 kg of milk/
kg of concentrate feed consumed (Soto et al., 2010b).
In this sense, the increase of the number of par-
turitions over the rainy season and at the end of the
dry season also contributes to higher efficiency in
the production during the rainy season (Guevara et
al., 2012).
In addition, an adequate control of the primary
economic data should be guaranteed, in order to
evaluate periodically livestock production systems,
which should include, mainly, the following values:
unitary cost, cost/peso, cost/animal/day, profit/
cost, cost/feedstuff, profitability and investment
recovery time (Senra, 2005).
In dairy farms, it should be expected that applying
the seasonality of milk production, even where the
restricted suckling rearing systems remain, calf rearing
does not constitute a problem. The largest problem
would be, not in the system used, but in the limitation
in the number of enclosed pastures with regards to the
control of parasite diseases, particularly in January and
February, when their occurrence is frequent; which
coincides with the lowest pasture availability.
In this regard, Ybalmea (2015) stated that the
live weight gain of calves reared under restricted
suckling, with weaning at 70 days, can be similar
to the calves under artificial rearing, with weaning
at 35 days of age, and both higher than the suck-
ling system with nurse cows. Thus, this author also
refers that in the tropic approximately 90 % of the
parasite infestation of calves occurs when grazing.
This problem could find an important solution with
the development of forage bank and confinement,
with supplementation, in the first six months of life.
In the rainy season, with the seasonal system,
calves are formed ruminants already and, just like
the other animals, have a great forage abundance
that is intensely utilized, which can have an
important repercussion on the health as well as the
mean daily gain, and on the efficiency in the rearing
and development stages.
In any case, in the spring the highest milk and
beefvolumesareachieved.Theanalysisofproductive
systems, states that the priority to achieve the
success of any farm tends to minimize the utilization
of the available forage by the animal (Espejo,
2007). Along with this, a high percentage of the

productivity and efficiency of a herd is concentrated
on the management of the entire production system;
through the policy of replacements the reproductive
and productive flow of the farm is guaranteed (del
Risco et al., 2009).
Another aspect that acquires special interest
is the rationing of time and the possibility of
diversifying the activities within the framework
of the farm or the dairy unit and the industry. In
these cases, the farmer will have the opportunity
to perform, in the period of lower work intensity,
maintenance chores of the farm, land preparation
to increase the offer in the basic household supply
and/or cattle feeding, etc. It is even possible to
increase the way of life of the family environment
(fig. 2).
Integration of the model in the Primary
Production-Industry-Consumer chain
Independentlyfromthetoolsthatareusedtoevaluate
a farm, barriers that may affect its sustainability
can be revealed (Marchand et al., 2014). In order
to implement a production system or model it is
essential to take into consideration a large number
of biological, technological and socioeconomic
factors, but, in turn, it is very important that they
act in a harmonic and proportional way, so that an
efficient and sustainable production is achieved.
A general proposal of seasonal model (fig. 3),
considers essentially modifying the work in the re-
productive sphere considering a reordering of the
occurrence of annual parturition in order to optimi-
ze the use of grass, the limited available inputs and
the human resources.
In the dairy farms of the Camagüey territory, it
is to be expected that applying the seasonality of milk
production, even where the rearing systems by res-
tricted suckling still remain, the calf rearing does not
constitute a problem, it should rather contribute to the
improvement of its body condition, as it was stated in
the previous section; as well as the specialization in the
maternity work and the responsibility assumed by tho-
se in charge of the activity and the personnel in general.
In a continuous way, it is important to consi-
der the traceability of the product from the primary
production to the industry, as intermediate link
between the producer and the consumer. Thus, it
would be important to consider the union of inte-
rests between producers and the industry, in both
directions. However, a highly important issue is the
strengthening of the relations among the producti-
ve chain, the industry and commercialization, with
unity of objectives and interests, which would im-
ply an important step forward to enhance the sector.
It is important to analyze, discuss and establish
rules and procedures that allow the basic farmer to
be identified with the results of industrial proces-
sing and the quality of the commercialized product.
Likewise, but in an inverse sense, the components
of industry and commerce must be fully identified
in each aspect that acts relevantly on the level and
quality of the product obtained.
In this sense, Brancato (2007) explained that New
zealand created a national basic production system,
which is simple, stable, sustainable, low cost and close-
ly related to the requirements of the exporting industry.
With regards to the milk industry and collec-
tion, it should be said that the Cuban society urgently

needs the increase of the presence of animal-origin
products in the basic household supply, and milk is
not an exception. In Cuba there is no room for the
contradiction between the industry and the farmer,
due to the production relations. Moreover, the rise of
the production peaks that lead to change old precepts
about the adoption of technologies and, also, deter-
mine changes in the industry, with such alternative
as Leche Larga Vida (Long Life Milk) or Powdered
Milk, is necessary, as well as investments in roads.
The first steps have been taken towards the increa-
se of capacities for the collection and cooling of milk,
through the development of small facilities located in
zones of higher contribution of the product (e.g. Jima-
guayú) and establishment of industries for the elabora-
tion of powdered milk (Camagüey); however, this could
be only a partial solution taking into consideration the
internal demands and productive potentialities, because
the transportation networks and the necessary equip-
ment to face productive peaks need capital investment,
whose value is estimated to be higher than that required
for the productive process itself, which can represent
the main economic limitation.
III. Introduction of the seasonal production
model
Enterprises show contrasts in other socioeconomic
aspects, in the exploited areas, the total of cows in
reproduction and the breeds, which brings about
significant differences and, thus, in the productivity
indicators, which are determinant to achieve
adequate efficiency (Gallardo, 2012).
It is very important in the possible introduction of
a seasonal milk production model to perform a serious
and detailed work, particularly according to the
characteristicsofthenationalproductiveenvironment.
It is essential to make important and urgent decisions,
based on casuistic studies in each territory and
particularly in the Camagüey province, in order to
implement in this way alternatives that respond to the
food and economic needs of the country, following a
progressive sequence in their application (fig. 4).
To make decisions in order to carry this process
out in certain scenarios it is essential to previously
evaluate, in each case, some demographic and pro-
ductive, biophysical and socioeconomic variables,
such as:
1. Diagnosis of the bio-economic feasibility of the
application of technological proposals and scien-
tific results at different impact scales:
a. Formation of expert commissions, with production
professionals and researchers at provincial level.
b. Identifying the fundamental aspects of the lives-
tock production issues in each territory (ecosys-
tem components and zootechnical management).
c. Evaluation of the main results reached in re-
search in the province about milk production
models (e.g. seasonal models).
d. Alternatives for the improvement of the feeding
basis (pastures and forages).

e. Economic possibilities to face changes at different
scales and terms (local development strategy).
2. Re-structuration of the form of entrepreneurial
management of cattle production.
a. Determining the most efficient cooperative milk pro-
duction form and extending it to the entire territory.
b. Territorial state structure for technical assistan-
ce and service provision (rural, commercial ex-
tension, animal health, reproduction, machinery,
agricultural management and rearing farms).
c. Revision of the agreements with the farmers and
cooperatives according to the potentialities, needs
and development perspectives of the country.
3. Establishment of a monitoring and systematic control
system of the performance of the sustainability in-
dexes of the applied technology or production model.
General considerations
In cattle production systems, the adequate ma-
nagement of available resources with regards to the
population demand, the market problems and the
milk production levels are highly important criteria,
to put into practice rational approaches of entrepre-
neurial management in this sector, implementation
of technologies and productive decisions.
Taking into consideration the real possibilities
of Cuban cattle production systems, it can turn out
that the concentration of parturitions (70-80 %)
in the period of higher grass growth increases the
bio-economic efficiency of milk production, with
limited dependence on external inputs.
A reproductive strategy that determines con-
centrated parturitions, allows to arrange the zoote-
chnical flow of the farm, improve the growth rate of
the replacements and concentrate all the efforts and
possible resources in a more favorable season of the
year; this allows to increase efficiency in the primary
production-industry-commerce-consumer chain.
The implementation of the seasonal milk pro-
duction model implies the casuistic evaluation of
the productive factors that compose the milk pro-
duction system and the systematic monitoring of
the efficiency indicators.
Bibliographic references
Brancato, A. El modelo de Nueva Zelanda y la leche-
ría uruguaya. Argentina: TodoAgro. http://nue-
vo.todoagro.com.ar/noticias/nota.asp?nid=6194.
[18/08/2008], 2007.
Castro, R. Discurso pronunciado en la clausura del IV
Período Ordinario de sesiones de la VIII Legisla-
tura de la Asamblea Nacional del Poder Popular.
Granma. http://www.granma.cu/cuba/2014-12-20/
discurso-integro-de-raul-en-la-clausura-del-iv-pe-
riodo-ordinario-de-sesiones-de-la-viii-legislatu-
ra-de-la-asamblea-nacional. [08/08/2014], 2009.
CentrodelClima.ElclimadeCuba.Característicasgene-
rales. La Habana: Instituto de Meteorología. http://
www.met.inf.cu/asp/genesis.asp?TB0=PLANTI-
LLAS&TB1=CLIMAC&TB2=/clima/ClimaCuba.
htm. [31/03/2016]., 2016.
De Loyola, C.; Guevara, R. V.; Guevara, G. F.; Curbe-
lo, L. M. & Soto, S. A. Intensificación simulada
de la parición al inicio del período lluvioso con
base forrajera mejorada. Eficiencia bioeconómica.
Revista de Producción Animal. 22 (2):14-20, 2010.
De Loyola, C.; Guevara, R. V.; Soto, S. A.; Garay,
Magaly & Ramírez, J. A. Momento óptimo para
intensificar la parición a partir de indicadores de
la producción láctea de rebaños bovinos comer-
ciales en Camagüey. Revista de Producción Ani-
mal. 27 (3), 2015.
Del Risco, S.; Guevara, R. V.; Guevara, G.; Soto, S.;
Lapinet, A. & Botyfoll, D. Evaluación de la efi-
ciencia bioeconómica de una empresa ganadera
con arreglo a la estrategia de parición anual y el
plano alimentario. Revista de Producción Ani-
mal. 21 (2):105-110, 2009.
Deming, J. A.; Bergeron, R.; Leslie, K. E. & DeVries,
T. J. Associations of housing, management,
milking activity, and standing and lying behav-
ior of dairy cows milked in automatic systems.
J. Dairy Sci. 96 (1):344-351, 2013.
Domínguez, A. M.; Morales, Y. & Sánchez, J. A. In-
fluencia del índice temperatura-humedad sobre la
producción de leche por época del año en vacas.
Memorias de V Congreso de Producción Animal
Tropical. Mayabeque, Cuba: Instituto de Ciencia
Animal. [CD-ROM], 2015.
Espejo, L. G. Producción eficiente con bovinos en pasto-
reo. http://www.milkproduction.com/Library/Arti-
cles/.2007. [04/04/2009], 2007.
FEDEGAN. FEDEGAN. Colombia. http://www.fede-
gan.org.co/modelos-eficientes-de-exportacion-gi-
ra-tecnica-australia-y-ueva-zelanda. [08/08/2014],
2013.
Gallardo, M. Factores nutricionales que afectan la
producción y composición de la leche. Facultad
de Ciencias Agronómicas, Universidad de Chile.
http://www.engormix.com/producir19o26sarticu-
los538GDL.htm. [31/07/2011], 2012.
Geary, U.; Lopez-Villalobos, N.; Garrick, D. J. &
Shalloo, L. Spring calving versus split calv-
ing: effects on farm, processor and industry
profitability for the Irish dairy industry. J. Agr.
Sci-Cambridge. 152 (3):448-463, 2014.
González, Ivet. Cuba busca el esquivo despegue de
la producción lechera. Inter Press Service (IPS).

http://www.ipsnoticias.net/2015/06/cuba-bus-
ca-el-esquivo-despegue-de-la-produccion-le-
chera/, 2015.
Guevara, R.; Soto, S.; Curbelo, L.; De Loyola, C.;
Guevara, G.; Bertot, J. A. et al. Factores que
pueden afectar la eficiencia bioeconómica y am-
biental en sistemas estacionales cubanos de pro-
ducción de leche. Revista de Producción Animal.
22 (2):87-95, 2010.
Guevara, R.; Spencer, M.; Soto, S.; Guevara, G.; Curbelo,
L.; De Loyola, C. et al. Influencia de la estrategia
de pariciones anuales en la eficiencia bioeconómi-
ca de microvaquerías en una empresa pecuaria. I.
Concentración de partos en lluvia y seca. Revista de
Producción Animal. 24 (1):1-6, 2012.
Herrera, R. S. El Instituto de Ciencia Animal, cincuen-
ta años de experiencia en la evaluación de gramí-
neas de importancia económica para la ganadería.
Rev. cubana de Cienc. agríc. 49 (2):221-232, 2015.
Holmes, C. W. Nueva Zelanda. Claves del tambo pasto-
ril. Seminario en la FAUBAhttp://www.engormix.
com/nueva_zelanda_claves_tambo_s_articu-
los_649_GDL.htm. [17/08/2008], 2006.
Jaramillo, T. El modelo lácteo de Nueva Zelanda. http://
agronegocios.uniandes.edu.co/index.php/ tematicas/
gestionyterritorio/198-el-modelo-lacteo-de-nue-
va-zelanda. [15/04/2015], 2014.
Macoon, B.; Sollenberger, L. E.; Staples, C. R.; Porti-
er, K. M; Fike, J. H. & Moore, J. E. Grazing man-
agement and supplementation effects on forage
and dairy cow performance on cool-season pas-
tures in the southeastern United States. J. Dairy
Sci. 94 (8):3949-3959, 2011.
Marchand, Fleur; Debruyne, L.; Triste, Laure; Ger-
rard, Catherine; Padel, Susanne & Lauwers, L.
Key characteristics for tool choice in indica-
tor-based sustainability assessment at farm level.
Ecol. Soc. 19 (3):46. http://dx.doi.org/10.5751/
ES-06876-190346. [28/04/2015], 2014.
Martínez, J.; Torres, Verena; Jordán, H.; Guevara, G.
& Hernández, N. Clasificación de fincas leche-
ras pertenecientes a cooperativas de créditos y
servicios. Revista de Producción Animal. 27 (1),
2015.
Mena, M.; Bertot, J. A.; Avilés, R. G.; Guevara, R.;
Guevara, G. & Vázquez, R. . Estacionalidad en la
producción de leche en un rebaño bovino. Revis-
ta de Producción Animal. 19 (1):9-12, 2007.
Muñoz, D.; Ponce, M.; Pereda, J.; Muñoz, D.; Muñoz,
L.; Rivero, L. E. et al. Los árboles en los sistemas
productivos pecuarios del municipio Jimaguayú.
Memorias de V Congreso de Producción Animal
Tropical. Mayabeque, Cuba: Instituto de Ciencia
Animal. [CD-ROM], 2015.
ONEI. Panorama Territorial. Cuba 2014. La Habana:
Oficina Nacional de Estadística e Información.
http://www.one.cu/publicaciones/08informa-
cion/panoramaterritorial2014/0000%20Comple-
ta.pdf. [02/02/2016], 2015.
Pedraza, R. & Justiz, Y. Efecto de la época y la empre-
sa en indicadores de producción de leche vacuna
en Ciego de Ávila. Revista de Producción Ani-
mal. 27 (2), 2015.
Pérez-Infante, F. Ganadería eficiente. Bases funda-
mentales. Ed. Nieve C. Cardice, MINAGRI. La
Habana. 2010.
Rossi, J. L. & García, S. C. ¿Cuál es el «piso» de la
producción pastoril? Buenos Aires. http://www.
engormix.com/MA-ganaderia-leche/articulos/
cual-piso-produccion-pastoril-t1241/p0.htm.
[30/04/2009], 2007.
Santiesteban, Dayami; Bertot, J. A.; Vázquez, R.; De
Loyola, C.; Garay, Magaly; de Armas, R. et al.
Tendencia y estacionalidad de la presentación de
estros en vacas lecheras en Camagüey. Revista
de Producción Animal. 19 (1):73-77, 2007.
Senra, A. Impacto del manejo del ecosistema del pas-
tizal en la fertilidad natural y sostenibilidad de
los suelos. Rev. AIA. 13 (2):3-15, 2009.
Senra, A. Índices para controlar la eficiencia y sos-
tenibilidad del ecosistema del pastizal en la
explotación bovina. Rev. cubana Cienc. agríc.
39 (1):13-21, 2005.
Soto, S. A.; Curbelo, L. M.; Guevara, R. V.; Mena,
Madeline; De Loyola, C.; Uña-Izquierdo, F. et al.
Efecto de patrones de concentración de parición en
el periodo abril-agosto en vaquerías comerciales. I.
Eficiencia bio-productiva. Revista de Producción
Animal. 26 (2), 2014b.
Soto, S. A.; Guevara, R.; Estévez, J. & Guevara, G. .
Análisis del efecto bioeconómico de la inclusión
de cultivos de ciclo corto como integración al sis-
tema de producción lechera. Revista de Produc-
ción Animal. 20 (2):115-123, 2008.
Soto, S. A.; Guevara, V. R.; Senra, P. A.; Guevara, V.
G.; Otero, A. & Curbelo, R. L. Influencia de la dis-
tribución de parición anual y el aprovechamiento
del pasto en los resultados alcanzados en vaque-
rías de la cuenca de Jimaguayú, Camagüey. I. In-
dicadores productivos y reproductivos. Revista de
Producción Animal. 22 (2):37-44, 2010b.
Soto, S. A.; Guevara, V. R.; Senra, P. A.; Guevara, V.
G.; Otero, A. & Curbelo, R. L. Simulación-va-
lidación del efecto bioeconómico de estrategias
de mejora de la base forrajera en función de la
producción estacional de leche en vaquerías. Re-
vista de Producción Animal. 22 (2):51-60, 2010a.
Soto, S. A.; Uña, F.; Curbelo, L. M.; De Loyola, C.;
Rodríguez, Evelyn & Estévez, J. Indicadores
bio-economicos de la producción de leche. Re-
vista de Producción Animal. 26 (2), 2014a.
Uña, F.; Soto, S. A.; Curbelo, L. M.; De Loyola, C.; Rodrí-
guez, Evelyn & Estévez, J. Comportamiento anual
de indicadores bio-económicos de la producción

de leche en vaquerías de la empresa pecuaria
Ruta Invasora, Ciego de Ávila. II. Vaquería caso.
Revista de Producción Animal. 26 (3), 2014.
Uña, F.; Soto, S. A. & Yordi, Idania. Comportamiento
estacional de indicadores bio-económicos. Re-
vista de Producción Animal. 27 (1), 2015.
Vargas, J. C.; Benítez, D. G.; Torres, V.; Ríos, S. &
Soria, S. Factores que determinan la eficiencia de
la producción de leche en sistemas de doble pro-
pósito en la provincia de Pastaza, Ecuador. Rev.
cubana Cienc. agríc. 49 (1):17-19, 2015.
Vibart, R. E.; Washburn, S. P.; Green, J. T. Jr.; Ben-
son, G. A.; Williams, C. M.; Pacheco, D. & Lo-
pez-Villalobos, N. Effects of feeding strategy
on milk production, reproduction, pasture utili-
zation, and economics of autumn-calving dairy
cows in eastern North Carolina. J. Dairy Sci.
95 (2):997-1010, 2012.
Ybalmea, R. Alimentación y manejo del ternero, obje-
to de investigación en el Instituto de Ciencia Ani-
mal. Rev. cubana Cienc. agríc. 49 (2):141-146,
2015.
Received: June 2, 2015
Accepted: September 23, 2016

Pastos y Forrajes, Vol. 40, No. 1, January-March, 15-20, 2017 / Pre-germination treatment in Talisia oliviformis 15
Scientific Paper
Effect of pre-germination treatments on the emergence and initial
growth of Talisia oliviformis (Kunth) Radlk
Maribel del Carmen Ramírez-Villalobos1
, Aly Segundo Urdaneta-Fernández2
, Verónica Chinquinquirá
Urdaneta-Ramírez2
and Danny Eugenio García-Marrero3
1
Departamento de Botánica, Facultad de Agronomía, Universidad del Zulia (LUZ)
Apdo. 15205. ZU4005, estado Zulia, Venezuela
2
Unión de Ganaderos El Laberinto (UGALAB), Venezuela
3
FMF-Freiburg Materials Research Center. Institute of Forest Utilization and Work Science, Germany
E-mail: mcramire@fa.luz.edu.ve
Abstract
The objective of the trial was to evaluate the effect of pre-germination treatments on the emergence and initial
growth of Talisia oliviformis (Kunth) Radlk, through six pre-germination treatments: seeds without seed coat (SC)
without soaking (T1), T1 plus soaking during 24 h (T2) and 48 h in drinking water (T3), seeds with SC without soaking
(T4), T4 plus soaking during 24 h (T5) and 48 h (T6). A completely randomized design was used, with six repetitions
and fifty seeds as experimental unit. The measurements performed were: emergence percentage (EP), plant height
(PH) and number of leaves (NL). Interaction of the factors seed coat (SC) and soaking time (ST) was found for the EP.
The pre-germination treatments were different among themselves; T5 reached the highest percentage (85 %), although
T4 achieved 72 % of EP, value which is also considered adequate. The interaction between SC and ST significantly
influenced the PH; T1, T2, T4, T5 and T6 did not differ among themselves, although T6 had equal performance as
T1 and T3. Regarding the NL, no differences were found among the treatments for any of the studied factors. It is
concluded that the interaction of the seed coat and the soaking time influenced the EP and PH. The treatments with
seeds with SC soaked during 24 h and without soaking reached the highest emergence percentages (85 and 72 %,
respectively). Both techniques are environmentalist, simple, practical and economical.
Keywords: height, leaves, seedlings, seed treatment
Introduction
In recent years, in Venezuela large extensions
of forests have been lost, as well as many native
and introduced trees in several livestock produc-
tion areas of the country, due to deforestation, the
changes in rainfall (quantity and distribution) and
the increase of the ambient temperature, these two
last factors associated to the El Niño climate phe-
nomenon, oceanic event that causes alterations in
the global climate system (INAMEH, 2015); it has
also been remarkably influenced by the demogra-
phic and anarchical growth of cities (Ramírez et al.,
2014a), of industry and plant and animal production
systems, among others.
On the other hand, in several localities of the
country the benefits and importance of trees as
shade element of the livestock –cattle, sheep, goat–
production ecosystem and for animal welfare are
unknown, for which generally when tree death or
loss occurs, they are not replaced, which has gene-
rated enclosed pastures with little or scarce shade
for the animal.
In Venezuela, just like in Colombia (Navas,
2010), grass monocrop is privileged, the tree cover
has been eliminated from grazing areas, and the
climate conditions of the different tropical ecosys-
tems, in which such variables as temperature and
relative humidity can limit the productive and re-
productive efficiency of the animals, are not taken
into consideration. The incorporation, replacement
and growth of the trees that are present or which
grow naturally in enclosed pastures and fields (Ra-
mírez et al., 2013, 2014a, 2014b), without affecting
forage production and quality, lead to improve the
animal welfare due to decrease of the heat stress,
because below the canopy temperature is reduced
between 2 and 9 ºC with regards to the enclosed
pasture areas without trees.
In Latin America, several studies (Delgado
and Ramírez, 2008; Lamela et al., 2010; Petit et
al., 2010; Ramírez et al., 2012, 2013, 2014b, 2014c)
have mentioned agroforestry, agrosilvopastoral and
silvopastoral systems as one of the alternatives for
livestock production which include the incorporation

16 Pastos y Forrajes, Vol. 40, No. 1, January-March, 15-20, 2017 / Maribel del Carmen Ramírez-Villalobos
oftreeswithmultipurposequalities.Talisiaoliviformis
isamultipurposetreethatmaintainsleavesinitscrown
throughout the year, even in long drought periods (up
to nine months), in livestock production systems of the
Zulia state; its fruits and leaves are browsed by cattle.
T. oliviformis (Kunth) Radlk, synonyms Tali-
sia oliviformis (HBK) Radlk, Talisia olivaeformis
(HBK) Radlk and Melicoccus olivaeformis HBK
belongs to the Sapindaceae family and is distri-
buted from Mexico to the northern part of South
America, even in the West Indies. This tree is 6-18
m high; shows long life, slow growth, densely thick
semi-spherical crown, and is very appropriate to pro-
vide shade in enclosed pastures; it is little demanding
in soil and climate, although it prefers abundant light
and heat, and good-drainage soils (Hoyos, 1994).
This fruit tree is generally reproduced by
seeds; however, the information is scarce and refers
to botanical descriptions (Avilan et al., 1992; Geil-
fus, 1994; Hoyos, 1994), for which several aspects
should be studied, such as the propagation techni-
ques by seed. For such reason, the objective of this
research was to evaluate the effect of the presence
or not of seed coat and the soaking time in water on
the emergence and initial growth of T. oliviformis.
Materials and Methods
Location. The trial was conducted in the uni-
versity nursery of the School of Agronomy, Univer-
sity of Zulia, Maracaibo municipality, Zulia state,
Venezuela (10º 41’ 12” L.N., 71º 38’ 05” L.W.);
framed in a zone classified as intervened very dry
tropical forest, at 25 m.a.s.l. and with an average
annual rainfall of 500 mm, temperature of 29 ºC,
relative humidity of 79 % and evapotranspiration of
2 500 mm (Huber and Oliveira, 2010).
Plant material and seed preparation. Ma-
ture fruits, of green-yellowish shell with some light
brown spots, were collected from trees planted in
El Taparo farm, El Laberinto sector, Yépez parish,
Lossada municipality, Zulia state, Venezuela. For
the seed preparation the fruits were shelled; then,
they were soaked in drinking water with liquid
soap (Brisol®) at 2 % (active compound: dodecil-
benzene, sodium sulfonate) and chlorine Nevex®
at 5 % (active compound: sodium hypochlorite at
0,26 %) during an hour to separate the aril or pulp
that surrounds the seeds, repeatedly rubbing with
a metallic mesh until removing it. Afterwards, they
were rinsed several times with drinking water with
the aid of the metallic mesh until the smell of chlorine
disappeared.
Then, the seeds were placed on newspaper,
and those that were very small, misshapen or with
mechanical damage were discarded. They were
preventively sprayed with the fungicide Vitavax®
(17 % Carboxin + 17 % Thiram) at 1 % until im-
pregnating all the seeds (Ramírez et al., 2012,
2013); they were dried under shade (28 ºC) during
four days and later stored at 10 ºC for 10 days.
Experimental design and treatments. A com-
pletelyrandomizeddesignwasusedwiththreerepetitions
and a 2 x 3 factorial arrangement, corresponding to two
levels of seed coat (with and without seed coat) and three
soaking times in water (0, 24 and 48 h), for a total of six
treatments. The experimental unit was formed by 50
seeds.
The six evaluated pre-germination treatments
were: seeds without seed coat and without soaking
(T1), seeds without seed coat (SC) soaked during
24 h (T2) and 48 h in drinking water (T3), seeds
with seed coat without soaking (T4), seeds with
seed coat soaked during 24 h (T5) and 48 h (T6).
In T1, T2 and T3 the seed coat was removed a day
before seeding, and immediately the seeds –without
seed coat– were sprayed with the above-mentioned
fungicide. The soaking in water in T2, T3, T5 and
T6 was performed at ambient temperature (28 ºC)
with changes every 12 h.
Seed sowing. The seeds were sown in plastic
polyethylene trays with 50 holes (5 cm wide x 8,5 cm
wide), which had a substratum in 2:1 ratio of sand
(plant layer) and washed cattle manure previously
disinfected three times with hot water. A seed was
placed per hole at a depth of 1 cm and six trays were
used per treatment. During this stage, irrigation
and weed control were manually performed every
day and once a week, respectively. The trial was
placed in the nursery area that was covered by a
saran-type mesh, with 40 % shade.
Measured variables. Every seven days the
number of emerged seedlings or plumules was
counted to determine the emergence percentage
(EP), according to the recommendation made by
Flores et al. (2009). Twenty eight days after seeding
the plant height (PH) and number of leaves (NL)
were evaluated. The PH was measured in centime-
ters, from the shoot apex to the plant basis.
Statistical analysis. To explain the effect
of the factors under study a variance analysis was
made through the GLM procedure of the Statistical
Analysis System program. Before comparing the
means through Tukey’s test, it was verified that the

data fulfilled the assumptions of variance homo-
geneity and normal distribution. In the case of the
variable EP the data were transformed through the
equation arcsin (x + 1)1/2
to adjust them to normality.
Results and Discussion
The variance analysis showed significant dif-
ferences (p < 0,05) for the effect of the interaction
of the factors seed coat and soaking time in water
(SC x ST) on the variable EP, 21 days after sowing
(table 1). The treatment which consisted in sowing
seeds with SC soaked in water during 24 h (T5)
showed the highest EP and differed significantly
(p < 0,05) from the others, with a mean of 85 %
at 21 days. For treatment T4 –seeds with SC and
without soaking– 72 % was obtained, value which
is also considered adequate.
It is important to emphasize that the six pre-ger-
mination treatments were different among themsel-
ves 21 days after planting (table 1); however, when
T1, T2 and T3 were applied with ST of 24 h and 48
h for the seeds without SC emergence was inhibi-
ted. Similar performance was found for T4, T5 and
T6 with ST of 0 and 48 h. The inhibitory effect of
soaking was associated to the fact that at higher ST
the embryo will reduce more the oxygen supply due
to the anaerobic condition created by a water excess
trapped between the cotyledons, which could have
suffocated the embryo because oxygen is essential
in the respiration process of seeds that occurs du-
ring germination (Hartmann and Kester, 2001; Ra-
mírez et al., 2013). The emergence of T. oliviformis
started eight days after sowing, with increases in
the EP at 14 and 21 days, and since then it became
constant (table 1).
When comparing the seeds without SC and
with SC without soaking (T1 and T4) at 21 days, it
was found that in T1 several seeds did not emerge
or lost their viability (table1), which proves that it is
not necessary to take off the coat that protects the
embryo. The high emergence in T5 and T4 –seeds
with SC soaked during 24 h and without soaking–
indicates that such structure allowed to preserve the
moisture content and viability.
Several reports point at the presence in the seed
coats of substances that promote the germination
process ((Hartmann and Kester, 2001; Azcón-Bieto
and Talón, 2008; Taiz and Zeiger, 2013), among
which are gibberellins, growth and germination
stimulators (through the loss of dormancy). These
phytohormones favor the mobilization of reserves
and regulate the synthesis of hydrolytic enzymes,
mainly α-amylases and proteases that degrade starch
and proteins, respectively. The accumulation of
Table 1. Effect of the interaction of the factors seed coat and soaking time in water (SC x ST) on emergence,
during the initial growth of T. oliviformis.
Treatment SC ST (h)
EP (%)
7 days 14 days 21 days 28 days
1
Without
SC
0 6,3 26,3 52d 52
2 24 6,3 20 48e
48
3 48 5,4 21,5 34f
34
4
With SC
0 3,8 40 72b
72
5 24 5 45 85a
85
6 48 5 22,5 61c
61
SE ± 0,05 0,59 1,01 1,01
Without SC 44,7b
With SC 72,7a
SE ± 0,78
0 62ab
24 66,5a
48 47,5b
SE ± 0,45
Means with different letters differ significantly (p < 0,05). SE: standard error.

gibberellins occurs during the development of the
seed and embryo; they are required in some stages
of the germination process, and are found in low
concentration in seeds with dormancy and in high
concentration in developing seeds (Azcón-Bieto
and Talón, 2008; Taiz and Zeiger, 2013).
The high EP in the seeds with SC soaked in
water during 24 h (T5) could be ascribed to the
softening this technique exerts on them, which fa-
cilitated the hydration phase and the onset of enzy-
matic processes which accelerated the emergence
of the seedlings (Ramírez et al., 2012). It could also
be related to the washing or removal of growth-in-
hibitor substances which are produced and accumu-
lated in the fruit pulp and the seed coats (Hartmann
and Kester, 2001), usually identified as abscisic
acid, and which in high concentrations suppress
germination (Azcón-Bieto and Talón, 2008; Taiz
and Zeiger, 2013).
Abscisic acid tends to increase with the fruit
maturation and can be involved in the prevention
of viviparity and the induction of dormancy in the
seeds. Such compound tends to disappear with stra-
tification, is antagonistic or counteracts the effects
of gibberellins, appears in high concentrations in
the seed coats, and can be sometimes lixiviated
with water; nevertheless, the disappearance does
not necessarily coincide with the onset of germina-
tion (Hartmann and Kester, 2001). The content of
abscisic acid in the seeds is very low during early
embryogenesis, increases to a maximum towards
the middle and late stage of embryogenesis, and
then decreases with their maturation. The normal
increase of the abscisic acid content at the begin-
ning and during the middle stage of seed develop-
ment controls the accumulation of reserve proteins
(Azcón-Bieto and Talón, 2008).
The effect of the SC x ST interaction on PH, 28
days after seeding, is shown in table 2. The PH va-
lues in T1, T2, T4, T5 and T6 did not differ among
themselves, although T6 had equal performance
as T1 and T3, which showed the lowest height, as-
cribed to the delay the 48-h ST caused in the emer-
gence of seeds without SC.
The PH was similar in T1, T2, T4, T5 and
T6, which could have been related to the fact that
in such treatments emergence started at the same
time and then weekly there were increases in the
EP, situation that produced many plants with equal
quantity of days in growth. However, T1 and T6,
in spite of having the same performance as T2, T4
and T5, showed the lowest PH values, which were
statistically equal to those of T3. This indicates that
the seeds with SC exposed to 48-h ST (T6) and
Table 2. Effect of the interaction of the factors seed coat
and soaking time in water (SC x ST) on plant
height, during the initial growth of T. oliviformis.
Treatment SC ST (h) PH (cm)
1
Without SC
0 6,7ab
2 24 7,6a
3 48 6,4b
4
With SC
0 7,5a
5 24 7,6a
6 48 6,9ab
SE ± 0,04
Without SC 6,7
With SC 7,6
SE ± 0,04
0 6,8
24 7,6
48 6,7
SE ± 0,03
Means with different letters differ significantly (p < 0,05).
SE: standard error.

the seeds without SC without soaking (T1) had the
same response as T3, for which it would be conve-
nient to not apply these treatments in T. oliviformis,
also considering their effect on the EP.
The plants showed homogeneous growth during
the evaluation phase, associated to the seed quality.
The success in the transplant of T. oliviformis to bag
was high (100 %). Regarding the NL, no interaction
was found of the studied factors and there were
no significant differences of the individual effects
(SC and ST) on this variable (tables 3 and 4); this
indicates that the presence of SC, ST and SC x ST
interaction did not affect the quantity of leaves in
the plants (table 3); three leaves for seeds without
SC as well as with SC, and for 24-h ST (table
4); three leaves for ST of 0 and 48 h. This was
associated to the fact that T. oliviformis showed
slow growth during the evaluation period of the
experiment.
Regarding the variables EP, PH and NL, no
information was found in literature that allowed to
make comparisons and there are only works related
to botanical descriptions, such as the ones written
by Geilfus (1994) and Hoyos (1994); the latter
author mentions the most widely used propagation
type (seed).
The results with T. oliviformis are considered pi-
oneering and represent a high contribution for this
species present in Venezuela, and in the Zulia state,
because the information about the propagation and
cultivation techniques are very scarce. T. oliviformis,
because of growing naturally, shows high potential
in different natural as well as farming, agroforestry,
horticultural and ornamental production systems;
and in semiarid zones with irrigation limitations,
due to the little water availability, which in many
cases is restricted only for human consumption.
The performance of EP, PH and NL during the
initial growth of T. oliviformis is essential for deci-
sion making about the site or sowing container, in
order to prevent malformations of the root system
and, thus, low-quality plants. The above-mentioned
variables and the success in the transplant to bag
allow to suggest seeding in the multiple trays used
in this research (5 cm wide x 8,5 cm deep), con-
sidering the report by Ramírez et al. (2013) about
the transplant being made as early as possible, as
plants reach a minimum of three true leaves, in-
dependently from most not having emerged. It is
stated that the success of the transplant decreases
as the plants are larger, because this causes higher
physiological stress (Flores et al., 2009; Ramírez et
al., 2012; 2013).
As T. oliviformis is a tree and emergence was
high and occurred in a 21-day period, another op-
tion would be to perform the direct seeding in bags
with a depth higher than 20 cm, considering the
stem growth –because in several tree species the
root length doubles or exceeds the PH– and a short
time of permanence in the nursery (it is suggested
to be not higher than 60 days after sowing). In the
case the plants require higher size or should remain
for a longer time in the sale area of the nurseries,
they should be transferred every certain time to
larger bags in order to prevent the damage of the
root system and the decrease of its quality and,
Table 3. Effect of seed coat on the number of leaves, during the initial
growth of T. oliviformis.
Treatment Seed coat Number of leaves
Without SC 3,5
With SC 3,5
SE ± 0,10
Table 4. Effect of soaking time in water on the number of leaves, during
the initial growth of T. oliviformis.
Treatment Soaking time (h) Number of leaves
0 3,6
24 3,5
36 3,6
SE ± 0,11

thus, that the success of the transplant to the field
is also reduced.
It is concluded that the interaction of the factors
seed coat and soaking time influenced the emer-
gence percentage and plant height. The treatment
which consisted in seeds with SC soaked during
24 h, with water changes every 12 h, allowed 85 %
emergence. The sowing of seeds with SC without
soaking also reached high EP (72 %). Both tech-
niques are environmentalist, simple, practical and
economical.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank CONDES-LUZ for the
grant awarded under the research project No. VAC-
CC-0243-14 to the University-LUZ Nursery, of the
School of Agronomy, for providing their facilities
to carry out this study.
Bibliographic references
Avilan, L.; Leal, F. & Batista, D. Manual de fruti-
cultura. Principios y manejo de la producción.
Caracas: Editorial América, C.A. Tomo II, 1992.
Azcón-Bieto, J. & Talón, M. Fundamentos de Fisiolo-
gía Vegetal. 2 ed. Madrid: McGraw-Hill Intera-
mericana, 2008.
Delgado, H. & Ramírez, L. Árboles y arbustos forraje-
ros como alternativa alimenticia para la ganadería
bovina y su impacto sobre la productividad animal.
En: C. González-Stagnaro y E. Soto, eds. Desa-
rrollo sostenible de la ganadería doble propósito.
Maracaibo, Venezuela: Fundación GIRARZ, Edi-
ciones Astro Data S.A. p. 385-397, 2008.
Flores, Emmy; Moratinos, P.; Ramírez, Maribel &
García, D. Evaluación de la emergencia y las ca-
racterísticas morfológicas iniciales de Tamarin-
dus indica L. con fines agroforestales. Pastos y
Forrajes. 32 (3):1-11, 2009.
Geilfus, F. El árbol al servicio del agricultor. Manual
de Agroforestería para el desarrollo rural. Tu-
rrialba, Costa Rica: CATIE, ENDA CARIBE.
Vol. 2. Guía de especies, 1994.
Hartmann, H. & Kester, D. Propagación de plantas.
Principios y prácticas. 8va reimp. México: Edi-
torial Continental, 2001.
Hoyos, J. Frutales en Venezuela. 2 ed. Caracas: Socie-
dad de Ciencias Naturales La Salle. Monografía 36,
1994.
Huber, O. & Oliveira, M. A. Ambientes terrestres de
Venezuela. En: J. P. Rodríguez, D. Giraldo y F. Ro-
jas, eds. Libro rojo de los ecosistemas terrestres en
Venezuela. Caracas: Provita, Shell de Venezuela,
Lenovo. p. 29-89, 2010.
INAMEH. Instituto Nacional de Meteorología e Hi-
drología. Venezuela: Instituto Nacional de Me-
teorología e Hidrología. http://www.inameh.gob.
ve/documentos/ESTADISTICOS_ BASICOS_
TyHR_EXTREM.pdf. [12/12/2015], 2015.
Lamela, L.; Soto, R.; Sánchez, Tania; Ojeda, F. &
Montejo, I. L. Producción de leche de una aso-
ciación de Leucaena leucocephala, Morus alba y
Pennisetum purpureum CT-115 bajo condiciones
de riego. Pastos y Forrajes. 33 (3):311-324, 2010.
Navas, A. Importancia de los sistemas silvopastoriles
en la reducción del estrés calórico en sistemas de
producción ganadera tropical. Revista de Medi-
cina Veterinaria y Zootecnia. (19):113-122, 2010.
Petit, Judith; Casanova, F. & Solorio, F. Rendimiento
de forraje de Leucaena leucocephala, Guazuma
ulmifolia y Moringa oleifera asociadas y en mo-
nocultivo en un banco de forraje. Revista Fores-
tal Venezolana. 54 (2):161-167, 2010.
Ramírez, M.; Petit, L.; Alvarado, M. & Soto, J. Pro-
pagación de la leguminosa multipropósito caña
fistula (Cassia fistula L.) a través de semillas.
Revista de la Facultad de Agronomía (LUZ).
31 (Supl. 1):203-212, 2014c.
Ramírez, M.; Rivera, C.; Urdaneta, A.; Rincón, C.;
Vásquez, J. & Suárez, H. Propagación por se-
millas del taparo (Crescentia cujete L.): estado
de madurez del fruto y tiempo de remojo de las
semillas. Memorias del I Congreso de Ciencias
Ambientales del Núcleo LUZ-COL y V Jornadas
del LIANCOL. Cabimas, Venezuela. p. 466-
472, https://sites.google.com/site/jornadaliancol/
memorias-de-eventos/i-congreso-y-v-jornadas.
[01/12/2015], 2014b.
Ramírez, M.; Soto, J. & Caraballo, B. Propagación ve-
getativa del abrojo (Tribulus cistoides L.), planta
ornamental multipropósito. Revista de la Facultad
de Agronomía (LUZ). 31 (Supl. 1):384-392, 2014a.
Ramírez, Maribel; Suárez, Hallely; Regino, Marines;
Caraballo, Brigida & García, D. Respuesta a
tratamientos pregerminativos y caracterización
morfológica de plántulas de Leucaena leuco-
cephala, Pithecellobium dulce y Ziziphus mauri-
tiana. Pastos y Forrajes. 35 (1):29-41, 2012.
Ramírez, Maribel; Urdaneta, A.; Caraballo, Brigida
& García, D. Emergencia y desarrollo inicial de
cuatro leguminosas forrajeras arbóreas presentes
en la altiplanicie de Maracaibo, Venezuela. Pas-
tos y Forrajes. 36 (3):303-312, 2013.
Taiz, L. & Zeiger, E. Plant Physiology. 5 ed. Sunder-
land. USA: Sinauer Associates, 2013.
Received: October 31, 2016
Accepted: February 28, 2017

Pastos y Forrajes, Vol. 40, No. 1, January-March, 21-26, 2017 / Planting distance of Morus alba (L.) 21
Scientific Paper
Effect of planting distance on the yield of Morus alba (L.) var. yu-12
Yolai Noda-Leyva and Giraldo Jesús Martín-Martín
Estación Experimental de Pastos y Forrajes Indio Hatuey, Universidad de Matanzas, Ministerio de Educación Superior.
Central España Republicana, CP 44280, Matanzas, Cuba
E-mail: noda@ihatuey.cu
Abstract
In order to evaluate the effect of planting distance on the dry matter yield of Morus alba, variety yu-12, a study
was conducted for two years at the Pastures and Forages Research Station Indio Hatuey. The planting distances were:
1,30 x 0,20 m; 1,30 x 0,40 m and 1,30 x 0,60 m. The dry matter yield of the edible biomass (DMYEB), and the dry
matter yield of the leaves (DMYL) and of the fresh stems (DMYFS) were measured. In the first year there were no
significant differences among the planting distances for any of the studied variables, and the annual DMYEB were
10,91; 9,55 and 9,58 t/ha/year for 0,20; 0,40 and 0,60 m of distance between plants, respectively. In the second year
significant differences were found for all the variables in favor of the lowest planting distance (0,20 m); the DMYEB
increased: 13,44; 10,94 and 10,06 t/ha/year for 0,20; 0,40 and 0,60 m. It is concluded that during the first year of ex-
ploitation the DM yield was not influenced by the planting distance between plants; likewise, the DM yields of the
edible biomass, leaves and fresh stems were higher during the second year of exploitation with the distance of 1,30 m
between rows and 0,20 m between plants, and they increased with regards to the first year, for which the persistence
of the crop and its regrowth capacity was remarkable.
Keywords: biomass, mulberry, sexual reproduction
Introduction
Mulberry (Morus alba, L.) was introduced in
Cuba with forage production purposes, and has
been proven to have good qualities for feeding di-
fferent animal species (Lamela et al., 2010).
In the Pastures and Forages Research Station
Indio Hatuey there are 21 varieties, among them ti-
greada, acorazonada, criolla and indonesia, which
were introduced from Costa Rica in 1996; along
with them the variety called cubana, which had
been imported from Ethiopia years ago, was natu-
ralized. Afterwards, in 2000, the Animal Science
Institute of Brazil facilitated the obtainment of
two selections (IZ-40, IZ-64) and three hybrids
(IZ-15/7, IZ-13/6, IZ-56/4); and in 2005 the varie-
ties ichinose, supermorera, cheongol and ppong
were introduced, from South Korea, taxonomica-
lly belonging to the species M. alba (Martín et al.,
2015).
In 2011, the institution enlarged its germplasm
with six varieties: universidad, universidad mejorada,
universidad nueva, yu-12 and yu-62, introduced from
China; and the var. Murcia, from Spain.
The first introduced varieties were reproduced
through asexual methods, mainly propagules from
mature branches, and with adequate agronomic
management they can produce about 8 t of edible
DM/ha/year (Martín et al., 2015).
However, in the most recently obtained varieties,
it has been proven that the main reproduction method
is by botanical seed, and the agronomic factors that
enhance the yields have been little studied.
In this regard, several authors observed that
the optimum cutting frequency and height, fertili-
zation, planting distance and density in each case
determine the yields of the mulberry varieties that
are propagated by cuttings (Benavides et al., 1994;
Boschini and Vargas, 2009).
In this sense, the planting density is a factor that
influences the agricultural production of most crops,
because increasing or decreasing the space between
plants can cause affectations in the yield, due to the
competition that is established at interspecific level,
which is given by the vital space demanded by each
species for its development.
Noda and Martín (2014), when studying the
effect of planting density on the tigreada variety,
recommended using high mulberry densities to
obtain adequate dry matter yields of edible biomass
and achieve better land utilization. Thus, they sta-
ted that the plant grows well when 37 500 plants/ha
are used, in triple rows separated at 0,50 m x 0,40 m
between plants.

22 Pastos y Forrajes, Vol. 40, No. 1, January-March, 21-26, 2017 / Yolai Noda-Leyva
Based on the above-mentioned arguments, the
objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of
planting distance on the dry matter yield of M. alba,
variety yu-12, which is reproduced by seed.
Materials and Methods
The trial was conducted at the EEPF Indio Ha-
tuey, located in the Perico municipality –Matanzas
province, Cuba–, during 2013 and 2014. In this pe-
riod 360,6 mm of rainfall were recorded and the
mean temperature was 29,2 ºC.
The soil has flat topography and is classified
as lixiviated Ferralitic Red, according to Hernán-
dez-Jiménez et al. (2015).
For the planting a technical nursery was pre-
viously created, in which root trainers were used and
two to three seeds of the var. yu-12 were deposited in
each one. When the seedlings had reached between
40 and 50 cm of height they were transferred to the
ultimate site. Before transplant to the field soil prepa-
ration activities were performed, which consisted in
plowing, crossing and re-crossing.
One month after planting, sugarcane filter cake
was applied at a rate of 1,2 kg/plant. The establishment
period was 12 months; at all times the area remained
free from weeds.
A completely randomized design was used in
which three planting distances were studied: 1,30 x
0,20 m; 1,30 x 0,40 m and 1,30 x 0,60 m, which co-
rresponded with densities of 38 450; 19 225 and 12 811
plants/ha, respectively. This originated three treat-
ments replicated four times, for a total of 12 plots of
10 x 6 m each, with a net area of 8 x 4 m. The evalua-
tion period was two years. In each year four cuttings
were performed in the rainy season (RS) and 4 in the
dry season (DS), with intense cutting frequencies of
40 and 50 days during the RS and the DS, respectively.
The cuttings were made with machete, at a height
of 50 cm above the soil basis, according to the re-
commendations made by Noda (2006). First, the
plants of the edge effect were cut and then, the five
plants per plot, which were randomly selected for
sampling purposes.
Based on the selected plants, the following as-
pects were determined: total weight, leaf weight
and ligneous stem weight, and by difference the
weight of the fresh stems was calculated. From the
proportions of leaves and fresh stems, the edible
biomass was obtained.
From each biomass component a portion of
250-300 g was taken for determining the dry matter
content (AOAC, 1990).
In order to determine the agronomic perfor-
mance, the yield variables were taken into con-
sideration: dry matter yield of the total biomass
(DMYTB), dry matter yield of edible biomass
(DMYEB), dry matter yield of leaves (DMYL) and
dry matter yield of fresh stems (DMYFS).
For the data processing a simple classification
ANOVA was used after verifying that the assump-
tions fulfilled the variance homogeneity and nor-
mal distribution; for such purpose the statistical
Infostat, version 1.1 was used. The means were
compared by Duncan’s test (1955) for a significance
level of p ≤ 0,05.
Results and Discussion
Figure 1 shows the effect of planting distance
on the dry matter yield of the edible biomass, leaves
and fresh stems, in each season, for the first year of
exploitation of the crop. There were no significant
differences among the planting distances for any of
the studied variables.
These results differ from the report by Noda
and Martín (2014), when evaluating three planting
frames in mulberry variety tigreada; in this study,
since the first year of exploitation of the crop, the
highest dry matter yields of edible biomass and its
components (leaves and stems) were found as the
distance between plants was reduced.
It should be emphasized that these authors used
the propagation method by cuttings, because it is the
most widely used one for the variety tigreada; while
in this study seedlings from nursery which had been
planted from seeds, were used. Thus, it is inferred that
the response obtained for the first year of exploitation
could have been in correspondence with the root
system that is developed in each case, although it is
necessary to do further research in this regard.
Itisknownthattheplantsthatdevelopadventitious
roots are those obtained from asexual methods
(cuttings, layerings, grafts, etc.), which absorb water
and the necessary nutrients from the availability
present in the topsoil, for which competition for
nutrients is established since early ages, because the
roots of more than one plant can occupy the same
area. This is contrary to what can occur in the plants
with pivoting roots, which have the advantage of
extracting the nutrients from the deeper soil layers
(Valla, 2007). Nevertheless, these statements should
be tested based on physiological studies that prove
them.
Inanotherlineofthought,itshouldbeemphasized
that the dry matter yield of edible biomass was 3,96;

Pastos y Forrajes, Vol. 40, No. 1, January-March, 21-26, 2017 / Planting distance of Morus alba (L.) 23
4,35 and 3,93 t/ha in the DS and 6,95; 5,2 and 5,65
t/ha in the RS, for the planting distances between
plants of 0,20; 0,40 and 0,60 m, respectively. Thus,
the annual yields were 10,91; 9,55 and 9,58 t/ha/
year; higher than those obtained by Martín (2004).
In his study, this author used cutting frequencies
of 60 days in the RS and 90 days in the DS and
obtained annual yields of 8 t/ha, for which the
productive potential of yu-12 behaved better than
the one reported for the variety tigreada in Cuba.
According to Cifuentes and Kee-Wok (1998),
the variety is one of the factors that determine the
mulberry yield, due to the specific characteristics
shown by each one. For example, the ones with
short internodes and big leaves will provide higher
biomass availability per plant. Yu-12 is one of
the mulberry varieties with these characteristics;
yet, although it was remarkable in plain view, it
was not the objective of this study to evaluate the
morphology and botany of the variety.
On the other hand, the quantity of cuttings in
each season could have been a positive factor in ob-
taining the yields, which were higher than the ones
reported by Martín (2004); however, it must be
taken into consideration that this could negatively
influence the persistence of the crop in time.
Figure 2 shows the dry matter yield of the edi-
ble biomass, leaves and fresh stems, for each sea-
son, during the second year of exploitation of the
crop. Significant differences were found for all the
studied variables in favor of the lowest planting fra-
me (0,20 m), and the DMYEB was 5,04 and 8,04
t/ha in the DS and RS, respectively.
These results coincide with the ones obtained
by Benavides et al. (1986), Rodríguez et al. (1994)
and Boschini et al. (1999). In those cases diffe-
rent planting distances from the ones evaluated
in this study were used; nevertheless, the highest
yields were obtained when decreasing the sepa-
ration between plants. Thus, in this experiment it
was confirmed that planting distance influences the
mulberry yield.
As the spacing between plants increased, the
yield per hectare decreased. With the 0,40-m dis-
tance the yields were moderate (3,06 t/ha in the DS
and 5,1 t/ha in the RS). When 0,60 m was used the
DMYEB decreased, with values of 2,01 and 3,35
t/ha in each evaluated period.
Regarding the DMYL and DMYFS, it was also
observed that at higher spacing between plants the
yield per hectare decreased. However, when estima-
ting the biomass production per plant, in leaves as well
as stems, a trend to increase their mass was observed
when using higher distances between plants. The yield
was 0,74 and 0,80 kg/plant/year of leaves and stems
in the 0,20-m distance; 0,91 and 0,98 kg/plant/year in
0,40 m; and 1,02 and 1,10 kg/plant/year of leaves and
stems, respectively, in 0,60 m. This performance was
also found by Boschini et al. (1999) in another mulbe-
rry variety, with higher planting distances.
On the other hand, Criollo and García (2009)
stated that with the increase of planting density the
biomass per plant generally decreases, although it
increases per surface unit.
The results during the second year of exploitation
of the crop in favor of the lowest planting distance can

24 Pastos y Forrajes, Vol. 40, No. 1, January-March, 21-26, 2017 / Yolai Noda-Leyva
be due to the interspecific competition for the vi-
tal space and nutrients (Páez, 1991), because in this
periods the plants have developed their entire root
system.
Several authors have emphasized the impor-
tance of using high densities to obtain high yields,
not only in trees and shrubs, but also in herbaceous
plants such as soybean, rice, onion and pepper (Li-
pinski et al., 2002; Gutiérrez et al., 2004; Acevedo
et al., 2011). For such reason, it can be inferred that
mulberry has a similar performance to that of other
species.
It is important to state that the yields of edible
biomass increased in the second year with regards
to the first, and 13,44; 10,94 and 10,06 t/ha/year
were obtained for the distances of 0,20; 0,40 and
0,60 m, for which all seems to indicate that mulbe-
rry is persistent and shows high regrowth capacity
when being exploited with intense cutting frequen-
cies (40 and 50 days in the DS and RS, respecti-
vely), coinciding with the report by Boschni et al.
(1999).
According to Francisco (2003), in most trees
defoliation influences the CO2
assimilation pro-
cesses. When the plant is pruned, the carbohydrate
reserves facilitate a vigorous regrowth; but when
these reserves are not sufficient or there is not reco-
very time, the emitted foliage is small, incapable of
assimilating sufficient carbon to restore them.
In addition, Nikinmaa et al. (2014) stated that
pruning reduces the photosynthetic foliage, but
the remnant foliage can be better exposed to solar
radiation and increase the efficiency of energy
conversion; for which a tree with low leaf area
density can intercept a higher number of photons
per leaf area unit than a tree with high density. For
such reason, when using a wide cutting frequency
the leaves are more spatially distributed and
make a better utilization of sunlight, which has
repercussions on the yield increase.
Another aspect, mentioned by several authors
(Hernández et al., 2000; Francisco, 2003), is that
there is interaction between pruning frequency and
planting density. In this study the cutting frequency
was fixed, but it is considered that it could have been
an important factor to obtain these yields, because
in the trees planted at high densities, the closing of
their canopies should occur earlier than in the ones
sown at low densities. In this case, it is stated that
to maximize the biomass production in dense plan-
tations shorter cutting intervals are required than in
sparser plantations (Horne et al., 1986).
In general, in the study it was observed that
when decreasing the distance between plants, that
is, when increasing the density per hectare, accep-
table edible biomass yields can be obtained for fee-
ding monogastrics and ruminants; this also allows
to make an intensive land use. The persistence and
regrowth capacity of mulberry when pruned with
intense frequency was also proven; however, it
is necessary to determine the crop persistence in
time, under similar conditions.

Pastos y Forrajes vol. 40 no. 1, 2017

Pastos y Forrajes vol. 40 no. 1, 2017

Empfohlen

Empfohlen

Weitere ähnliche Inhalte

Ähnlich wie Pastos y Forrajes vol. 40 no. 1, 2017

Ähnlich wie Pastos y Forrajes vol. 40 no. 1, 2017 (20)

Kürzlich hochgeladen

Kürzlich hochgeladen (20)

Pastos y Forrajes vol. 40 no. 1, 2017