2. Introduction
Nurses are the backbone of
any hospital and can greatly
contribute to improving
patient outcome by doing
research on their day-to-
day clinical activities thus
not only proving
professional gain but also
personal satisfaction.
3. What Is Research?
Systematic inquiry using disciplined
methods to solve problem
Nursing research
Systematic inquiry to develop
knowledge about issues of importance
to the nursing profession
Research
4. Research
Basic: Extend information for sake of
knowledge
Applied: Discovering solutions to
immediate problems
6. Sources of Evidence for
Nursing Practice
Tradition
Authority
Clinical experience, trial and error,
intuition
Logical reasoning (inductive and
deductive)
7. Key Evidence-Based Practice
Treatment/therapy/intervention
Assessment and diagnosis
Prognosis
Harm and etiology
Meaning and process
8. Research Utilization (RU)
Versus
Evidence-Based Practice (EBP)
Research utilization (RU)
The use of study findings in a practical
application unrelated to the original
research
Evidence-based practice (EBP)
Basing clinical decisions on best possible
evidence—especially high-quality research
9. Resources for Evidence-
Based Practice
Systematic reviews
Clinical practice guidelines
Care bundles
Other preappraised evidence
10. Research Integration
and Synthesis
Forms of integrative reviews:
Narrative, qualitative integration
(traditional review of quantitative or
qualitative results)
Meta-analysis (statistical integration of
results)
Metasynthesis (theoretical integration
of qualitative findings)
11. Key Challenges of Doing
Research
Conceptual
Financial
Administrative
Practical
Ethical
Clinical
Methodologic
12. Barriers to Using Research
in Nursing Practice
Quality and nature of the
research
Characteristics of nurses
Organizational factors
13. Why Research is Essential?
• Writing for publication in nursing is
essential to disseminate evidence, share
initiatives and innovations with others,
provide new information to keep nurses
up-to-date, communicate the findings of
research studies, and develop the science
base of the profession.
• Writing an effective scientific paper is not
easy, but the process can be simplified by
understanding how to develop a
manuscript and submit it for publication
14. How Will REAP -AIIMS Help You?
A major goal of this course is the ability
to conduct research and development of
effective technical writing skills.
After the course, you will be better
motivated to conduct research, write the
research into a paper and have it
presented at conference.
15. AIIMSONIAN OF AMERICA AWARD
Ms. Anjusha Thomas
Best Research Nurse 2009
Ms. Metilda Robin-
Best Nurse 2009
Ms Sonia Chauhan
Best Research Nurse 2010
Ms Anu Susan
Best Nurse In Community
Health 2010
17. Nurses’ Role in Using
Research Evidence
Read widely and critically
Attend professional conferences
Learn to expect evidence that a
procedure is effective
Become involved in a journal club
Pursue and participate in Research
Utilization/Evidence Based Practice
projects
24. Types of Research
Written
Research paper, review, letter,
comment, editorial….
Oral
Research, Oration…
Poster
Research
25. Written Communication
Most Important
For posterity: factual, comprehensive
Can be referred to repeatedly
Change not possible
Writing skills
Limited interaction, delayed
Demanding: write and re- write
26. Communicate
Do it all the time:
informal, unstructured, on the job
Not taught
27. Importance
• Necessary : inform, educate
• Unending process
• Learn ground rules
• Get past ‘gatekeepers’
• Build on a strong base
• Creative
28. Quality Communication
• Get Noticed : Recognition
• Effective
• Accurate, brief, complete, ‘story’
• Poor communication
• Criticism, hurts ego
34. Introduction (Why did you start)
Rationale of the study
Supply sufficient background information to
allow a reader to understand and evaluate
the results of present study without
referring to previous publications on the
topic
Concise, adequate, not a detailed review.
35. Introduction
Review pertinent literature to orient the
reader.
Define lacunae and shortcomings in current
state of knowledge.
Provide rationale for the current study
What gap in knowledge did you try to
fill?
What controversy did you try to resolve?
State the aim of the study.
36. Introduction
Brief, clear, to the point
Written in present tense
Clearly defines nature and scope of the
problem investigated
May state the study group, study design
and methods used
( How and why are these better than those of
previous studies)
May state the principal result/conclusion
37. Introduction
Key references to support the
background information provided
Refer to your
Previous preliminary work
Closely related papers appearing
elsewhere
Define any specialized terms,
definitions or abbreviations you
intend to use
38. Introduction: Common problems
Historical details
Frequently too long
Too general and vague
Contains ‘discussion’ material
Imitative
39. Summary
Why did you start?
4 sentences
Background
Gap in knowledge
Question
Study design
Be brief and focused
41. Scientific Writing: Orwell’s Rules
Never use a metaphor, simile or figure of
speech
Never use a long word, if a short one will
do
If you can cut a word out, do it
Never use the passive, when you can use
the active
Never use a foreign phrase, a scientific
word or a jargon word if you can think of
an everyday English equivalent
42. Language
Precise
One and only one interpretation
Familiar
Easier to read
Concise
Short, brief
Fluid
Smooth and logical flow of thoughts
43. Writing Style: Elements
Structure
Uniformity
Placement and emphasis
Brevity and simplicity
Language
Spellings
Grammar
Illustrations
44. Structure : Uniformity
Formerly, hemoglobin was measured
by colorimetry, but now an automated
analyzer is employed.
Formerly, hemoglobin was measured
by colorimetry, but now it is done using
an automated analyzer.
45. Structure : Placement
Place the most important elements at the
start or the end
Word(s) in sentence
Sentence in paragraph
Paragraphs in composition
46. Structure:
Emphasis and Placement
The currently available vaccine for disease X is ineffective
when used post-exposure. However, it is not safe enough
for universal pre-exposure prophylaxis. In the current study,
we found that the new polysaccharide vaccine
--------------------------------------------------------------------------
----. The vaccine was useful even when administered up to 10
days after exposure. The efficacy of the vaccine in this situation
was ------------------------------------------------. Our findings
are thus likely to have a major impact on the prevention
and epidemiology of disease X.
47. Paragraphs
Divide a written piece into logical segments
Make text less intimidating and easier to
read
Each deals with one topic/thought
Need transitions to connect thoughts or
separate them logically
Avoid one sentence paragraphs except as
transition
Begin with a sentence that either suggests
the topic or helps the transition
Logical mind + Good eye
48. Paragraphs And Transitions
Essential hypertension is associated with
renal retention of salt. The salt retention
is due to a disturbed renin-angiotensin-
aldosterone axis. This disturbance may
be due to several causes.
The most important cause of this
distubance is------------. This has been
studied in detail and -----------
49. Sentence Parts
The jailor beat him hard with an iron rod
Subject Verb Object Adverb Adjective
Noun Tense Pomposity
Pronoun Voice Verbosity
Dangling modifiers Split infinitives
50. Grammar: Noun- Pronoun
Which noun does the pronoun
substitute?
The Prime Minister’s emissary talked to
Mr. Amarinder Singh. Mr Singh
admitted that he had not consulted the
Prime Minister before he got the new
act about river water passed in the
state assembly. The emissary told him
that he was very upset about it.
Gender neutral language (plural form
helps)
51. Nouns: Expressions To Avoid
Colloquialism
Mom, kid, lab, minilap
Contrived long words
Maternal parent, pediatric patient,
liquid imbibitions
Long string of nouns
Doctor workload reduction program
(Program to reduce the workload of
doctors)
52. Missing (‘Understood’) verbs
Polly loves cake more than me
Polly loves cake more than I
Polly loves cake more than she loves
me
Polly loves cake more than I do
53. The Voice: Active Or Passive
We discussed the
therapeutic potential of
fish oil.
The therapeutic
potential of fish oil was
discussed
54. Dangling Modifiers
Dr Young treated the patients
using antidepressants.
Dr Y treated patients who
were using antidepressants.
By using antidepressants Dr
Y treated the patients.
She told me that he was
dead on the phone.
She told me on the phone
that he was dead.
55. Dangling Participles
Having a temperature of 42o
C, we gave
patient a cold bath.
After being whipped fiercely, the cook
boiled the egg.
56. ‘Only’
I hit him in the eye
Only I hit him in the eye
I only hit him in the eye
I hit only him in the eye
I hit him only in the eye
I hit him in the only eye
57. Redundancy
already existing alternative choices
at the present time basic fundamentals
completely cured currently underway
first began introduced a new
mix together never before
none at all still persisted
58. Redundancy
The question as to whether Whether
In spite of the fact that Though
In almost all cases Nearly always
Due to the fact that Because
In only a small number of cases Rarely
With the possible exception of Except
As compared to Than
60. Fewer vs. lesser
The patient undergoing laproscopic
surgery had less pain than those
undergoing open surgery
The patient undergoing laparoscopic
surgery spent fewer days in hospital
than those undergoing open surgery.
61. Grandiloquence
Abstract words(juxta, sphericity)
Vague words(of the order of)
Foreign words(circa, vide supra)
Fancy words(beauteous)
Offbeat words(upright, hep)
Non-words(aspirinize, normalized,
electrophoresed)
63. Verbosity
At this moment of time, it is believed
that X is the major causative factor for
disease Y
Currently, it is believed that…….
64. Spelling: common errors
Vomitting Vomiting
Inflamation Inflammation
Occuring Occurring
Upto Up to
Principal Principle
Mucus Mucous
Illium Ileum
Ilitis Ileitis
Coastal Costal
65. Emphasis : Illustration
When the infusion of drug A was
started, blood levels of substance C
initially fell to reach a nadir at 12
hours; however, thereafter,the levels
again increased to close to the pre-
infusion levels and remained so for the
remaining of the infusion.
66. Other Common Errors
‘And’ and ‘but’ to join unconnected
thoughts
Overuse of indirect speech
Overuse of passive voice
Switching tenses
Switching persons
Improper punctuation
68. One should not aim at being possible to
understand but at being impossible to
misunderstand
- Quintilian
69. ‘The greatest invention of the
nineteenth century was the invention
of the method of invention.’
-AN Whitehead
Material & Methods
70. Basic Terminology
Research problem
An enigmatic, perplexing, or troubling
condition
Problem statement
A statement articulating the research
problem and indicating the need for a
study
71. Basic Terminology
(cont’d)
Research questions
The specific queries the researcher wants to
answer in addressing the research problem
Hypotheses
The researcher’s predictions about
relationships among variables
72. Basic Terminology
(cont’d)
Statement of purpose
The researcher’s summary of the overall
study goal
Research aims or objectives
The specific accomplishments to be
achieved by conducting the study
73. Methods: Goal
The purpose of the methods section
is to describe in sufficient detail
what you did to answer your
research question so that another
researcher can replicate the study
74. Methods
What all was done ?
How was it done?
When was it done?
Who did it?
How were the results analysed?
Did you have ethical clearance to do
so?
75. Major Classes of
Quantitative Research
Experimental research
Researchers actively introduce an
intervention or treatment
Nonexperimental research
Researchers collect data without
intervening or introducing
treatments
76. Methods: Types of Studies
Primary research studies
-clinical trials
-surveys
-laboratory experiments
-evaluation of a new test
Secondary research studies
-reviews
-meta-analyses
-Cost -efficacy analyses
77. Method : Study Design
Randomized
Controlled: placebo/active drug
Open/blinded
Cohort/case control
Prospective/retrospective
78. Phases in a Quantitative
Study
Phase 1: Conceptual Phase
Phase 2: Design and Planning
Phase
Phase 3: Empirical Phase
Phase 4: Analytic Phase
Phase 5: Dissemination Phase
79. Major Steps in a Quantitative
Study
Phase 1: Conceptual Phase
1. Formulating the problem
2. Reviewing related literature
3. Undertaking clinical fieldwork
4. Defining the framework and developing
conceptual definitions
5. Formulating hypotheses
80. Major Steps in a
Quantitative Study (cont.)
Phase 2: Design and Planning
Phase
6. Selecting a research design
7. Developing intervention protocols
8. Identifying the population
9. Designing the sample plan
81. Major Steps in a
Quantitative Study (cont.)
Phase 2: Design and Planning Phase
(cont.)
10. Specifying methods to measure research
variables and collect data
11. Developing methods to protect
human/animal rights
12. Finalizing and reviewing the research plan
82. Major Steps in a
Quantitative Study (cont.)
Phase 3: Empirical Phase
13. Collecting data
14. Preparing data for analysis
83. Major Steps in a
Quantitative Study (cont.)
Phase 4: Analytic Phase
15. Analyzing the data
16. Interpreting results
84. Major Steps in a
Quantitative Study (cont.)
Phase 5: Dissemination Phase
17. Communicating the findings
18. Utilizing findings in practice
85. Criteria for Evaluating
Quantitative Research
Reliability
The accuracy and consistency of
obtained information
Validity
The soundness of the evidence—whether
findings are convincing, well-grounded
86. Activities in a Qualitative
Study
1. Conceptualizing and planning the
study
2. Conducting the study
3. Disseminating the findings
89. Methods: Intervention
Details of procedure
Mention the special circumstances
After fasting
Indoor/outdoor procedure
Time of the day
90. Methods
Provide sufficient details
New method
Provide all details
Previously described
Provide reference
Describe in brief
Don’t cite an abstract/obscure journal
Describe any modifications
Inter and intra-assay variability, sensitivity
91. Define outcome
Intervention trials
Primary outcomes
Secondary outcomes
Toxicity
Parameters used
Follow up
Frequency
Method
Duration
Laboratory experiments
Define cut-off for positive
Sensitivity and specificity of assay tested
Define significant change
92. Methods : Analysis of Data
Sample size calculation
Estimate of power: β error
Exact tests used for analysis
Chosen a priority
Common tests: give name
Advanced/unusual test: provide reference
Details of software used
p value to disprove the null hypothesis
94. Methods
Present methods in chronological
order
Subheadings should match those in
results
‘internal consistency’
In past tense
Be precise
95. Methods : language
‘Employing a straight platinum wire
rabbit, sheep and human blood agar
plates were inoculated’
‘Blood samples were taken from 48
patients aged 6 months to 22 years; all
patients gave informed consent.’
‘After standing in boiling water for an
hour, examine the flask’
‘All endoscopic procedures were done by
an experienced endoscopist, after
intravenous sedations’
96. Methods
Do not mix results and methods
‘Colleague treatment ’
97. Methods: Checklist
Does it describe
What questions was asked?
What was being tested?
How reliable was the measurement?
Were the parameters recorded and
analyzed correctly?
Would a reader be able to repeat the
same experiment?
99. Materials and Methods-
Rough Draft
The study was conducted in two
phases. The first phase was before
the introduction of Vibrators from the
month of January 2011 to March
2011 and the second phase was from
April 2011 to June 2011 after the
introduction of Vibrators.
100. Materials & methods-
Final
This retro-prospective study was carried
out in all ventilated head & spinal injured
patients over 6 months in Neurosurgery
ICU. The clinical (demographics,
admission GCS & in hospital mortality) &
microbiological data (Modified Tracheal
Culture) was collected over the two time
periods.
101. The ‘control’ group consisted of patients in
whom data was retrospectively collected
from January 2011 to March 2011 (before
the introduction of Vibrators). The ‘test’
group consisted of patients in whom data
was prospectively collected from April 2011
to June 2011 (following introduction of
Vibrators). All chest physiotherapy using
mechanical vibrators was done by bedside
nurses every 2 hourly.
103. Results: Before Writing
Collect data
List variables mentioned in Methods
Place data for each under them
Avoid missing information
Are there any additional data?
Are these relevant to the study?
Matrix plan
104. Results: Before Writing
Recheck tables for accuracy
Analyze
List all findings, study their relationships
Identify the important ones
Think and plan
Sequence
Identify subheadings
Tables/text/figure
105. Measurements
Science is measurement!
Report the who, what, when, where
How (in methods)
Why (in discussion)
Precision, reliability and validity of
measurements
106. Statistics
Use % if n>100
Restrict decimal points to 1 or 2
No adjectives (most, some, often..)
107. p Values
Nothing like significant, highly
significant or very highly significant
All p<0.05 are significant; give value
of p
Give exact p values: p=0.02 vs
p<0.05
Smallest p value that need be
reported is p<0.001
Many journals require 95% CIs
108. Report Study Findings-
Follow Methods
Who Patients / controls / rats / age /
gender / weight
What Procedure / Measurements
When Time period / morning
Where Hospital / Clinic
109. Results of Clinical Studies
Schematic summary of study
Show study design
Indicate flow of subjects through the
study
Account for all subjects or
observations
110. Participants / Controls
Age/ gender distribution
Whether matched for baseline
characteristics (usually as table)
If different, whether correction
applied
112. Evaluation
Compliance with therapy/protocol
Response with respect to outcome
measures
All evaluated parameters
Adverse reactions
Follow up data
Correlations / differences between
parameters / groups
113. Results
Give numerators and denominators of all
percentages
(“In all, 33% of the rats lived, 33% died,
and the last one got away.”)
What does 12% of 6 patients mean?
What is
normal/abnormal?
raised/high/low?
Cite all tables/figures in text
114. Results: Do not
Omit unexpected findings
Give results to a greater degree of
accuracy than each measurement
Make groups/patients
appear/disappear
Use abbreviations??
115. Results
What did you find?
Should answer all the points raised in
the methods
No new parameters
Text / tables / figures
No mismatch in numbers
116. Results: Study Specific?
Variations: depends on type of study
Drug trial
Animal experiment
Clinical trial
Cohort, case-control
Randomised controlled trial
Meta-analysis
122. Tables : Common errors
Title: none, too long, too brief
Effect of adrenaline on cirrhotic and
non-cirrhotic rats at 20,40 and 60
days
Effect of adrenaline on cirrhotic and
non-cirrhotic rats
Adrenaline and rats
123. Figures
Types
Graphs
Photographs
Flowcharts
Location in relation to IMRAD
structure
Results
Methods: technique, study design
124. Figures
Purpose-specific
Graphs
Line : usually event in relation to time
Bar : comparisons
Pie : parts of a whole
Histogram : frequency distribution
Scatter : associations between variables
125. Figures
What do I want to say?
Is there a better method?
Type of figure?
Less better than more
Only if necessary
126. Figures
Photographs, pictures
Technique
Before and after
Show an event
Flow charts
Process, sequence, systems
Algorithms
127. Table or figure
Prefer tables
Use figures only for illustrative
Bar, histogram, pie: ?table
Difference in written and oral
communication
128. Figure : Guidelines
2 axes : 2 types of information
Curves : not more than 5 lines, thick
Label axes : quantity, units
Simple symbols (,) not ,
Crossing curve : show break
129. Figure : Guides
Good contrast
Label
Stain used
Mask identity
Magnification and scale
No clips or staples
Use colour, if absolutely essential
130. Figure : Legend
Brief but complete
Explain label
Full form of abbreviations
Write separately (Journal
instructions)
Usually not with the figure
131. Figure : Details
Indicate the TOP of the figure
Place a mark
Name of the author
Brief title of article
Figure number
Not within the figure
132. Summary
Illustrations : adjuncts
Convey a message
Various types: use appropriately
Ask: Is it needed?
Simple, consistent, clear, focussed,
visually effective
133. Recommend
Look at recent issue of journal
Use a similar published table/figure as
a template
Read journal instuctions
Read Vancouver style (www.icmje.org)
136. Discussion of a Paper
What does it all mean?
‘
IMPLICATIONS’
‘SIGNIFICANCE’ vs.
‘RELEVANCE’
137. Discussion: Purpose
Brings together all the pieces of the
puzzle
What was known before
What we learned
This interpretation through inter-relation
bridges the data with the conclusion
138. Discussion: Problems
Difficult to write
Tend to be verbose, too long
Issues not addressed by the
study
Sequence: does not flow
Introduce new information
Harp on trivial or obvious points
Ignore difficult to explain results
139. Discussion: Structure
State major findings
Strengths: design, technique, results
Discuss
Findings re: existing information
“important” minor findings
Implications: of findings, for practice/future research
Limitations
Summary(conclusion)
140. Discussion
Summary of findings without
quantitative results WHAT WAS FOUND
Making points
First point
Second point WHAT CAN BE FOUND
(Potentially a third point)
Limitations WHAT ONE CANNOT SAY
Last paragraph of conclusion and
recommendations WHAT YOU MAKE OF IT
141. First Paragraph Of The
Discussion
DO
Announce the points that will be discussed
Summarize the results in big picture terms
Avoid
Interpreting
Repeating results in great details
Initiating the discussion of the results per se
142. Last paragraph of the
discussion
DO
Summarise conclusion points
Propose recommendations
Add action points
Future studies
Implications for patient evaluation and care
Avoid
Proposing recommendations disconnected from conclusions
Repeating results without adding a layerof interpretation
143. Middle Part: Interpretation
Starting from the results, bridge to
conclusions through interpretation
Describing and interpreting
Before you interpret, describe
imagine you are talking on the phone
the person you talk to has not seen the evidence
Interpreting in light of initial hypotheses
144. Strengths
Study design
Sample size, controls, variables
assessed
Duration of follow up
Technique
New, established but not
previously used in subset
Better standardization
145. Comparison with Others
Check that the comparison is valid
e.g. comparable methods, study groups
Build arguments around consistency
If differences, provide posssible explanations
Discuss opposing views equally well
A must: good grasp of information
Do not hesitate to criticize
Reasoned, logical arguments
Avoid rhetoric, be diplomatic
147. Limitations
Selection bias
Generalizable, applicable
Drop outs
Discuss unexpected findings
Do not ignore, offer explanation
If none plausible:say so
148. Place of the ‘limitations’
section
Recommended location
After summarizing the results in the discussion
Before the conclusions
Location to avoid
After the conclusions
We want to conclude after we have taken the
limitations into account
149. For each limitation,
specify:
What is the limitation
What are the consequences of the limitation
What did you do to control/address the
limitation
How do you interpret the data in view of the
limitation
150. Example of a “limitations”
section
Limitation
We could not isolate the pathogen
Consequence
We cannot rule out another diagnosis
Address the limitation
The serology that is specific (ref) was positive
signs/symptoms were compatible(ref)
The disease is endemic in our region(ref)
Interpret in view of the limitation
Our diagnosis is the most probable
hypothesis(despite the limitation)
151. Focus the Discussion
Begin with the most important point,
then move to less important points
Confine to the subject studied
Focus on key issues
Provide link sentences between
paragraphs: ensure flow
152. Implications
Alteration in clinical practice, public
policy
Understanding of pathogenesis,
mechanism of disease
Geographical
Financial
Consider alternative explanations
Speculate, but intelligently
correlation≠causation
153. Discussion
DO NOT
Start with history
Repeat all your results
Provide new data
Extrapolate results
Superlatives
154. Conclusions
Answer
So what?
Who cares?
Only those supported by data
Avoid sweeping statements
155. Is the job done?
Ask a colleague to read
Get feedback from ‘worst enemy’
Re-work
156. Summary
Difficult to write
Break into sections
Provide link sentences : ensures
continuity
Short, clear, key issues
164. Comments on Youtube:
येः इंिडयन दुिनया मे जहाँ भी जाते है गंद फै लाते है
अपना घर तो साफ़ रखते है और कचरा बहार डालते है
165. Comments on Youtube:
it is gross for sure. but it does look
like a setup. Why on earth was this
female ankitha rane filming a pani
puri vendor at that time. Now they
will politicize this matter against
some communities .
Already over 300 vendors were
beaten black 'n blue 'n their stalls
were broken.
166. Comments on Youtube:
They need to be educated about
sanitation and its our responsibility to
secure their livelihood...
These videos are good if it gonna
make people think that these poor
people need training and if it is going
to divert people to Mc.Donald sort of
shops then its sad...
167. Why? (Panipuri vendor)
Normal ‘guy’
Nobody watching
No concern/ empathy with the people
who come to him (Haves & have nots)
Just earn his livelihood & go home
168. Why? (Healthcare
professional)
Normal ‘guy/ girl’
Nobody watching
No concern/ empathy with the patients who
depend on them completely
Just earn his livelihood & go home
169. Consequences of the Act-
unsuspecting people
Eating contaminated Panipuri
99.9% of times- Nothing
If vendor has UTI- then maybe
infection???
170. Consequences of the Act-
unsuspecting people
Not handwashing/ not handwashing
properly
Extremely dangerous
Patients- Resistant infection- death
Loved ones- resistant infection- death
Adjectives ending in -ing (and sometimes -ed) are called participles and must be used with care. Consider the following sentences:
The robber ran from the policeman, still holding the money in his hands. After being whipped fiercely, the cook boiled the egg.
Circa- approximately
Vide supra- see above or see earlier in the writing
Deo volente- God willing