3. USES OF SORGHUM
Used as human feed and fodder
The plant stem and foliage are used for
green chop, hay, silage, and pasture.
The stem is used as building material,
and plant remains (after the head is
harvested) may be used for fuel.
4. Cytological evidence suggested Sorghum evolved from
the wild Arundinecea.
Snowden believed that the wild African Arundinacea :
S. arundinacea, S. verticelliflorum and S. sudanese
were the progenitors of cultivated crop
De Wet et al. (1976) derived from Aethiopicum and
Verticelliflorum by selection mainly for tough
racemes and larger panicles in the Ethiopia-Sudan
region of Africa.
Origin
5. Its very difficult to determine when and where domestication began.
Murdock (1959) suggested that the Mande people around the headwater of
Niger River may have domesticated sorghum
Doggett (1965) indicated that the practice of cereal domestication was
introduced from Ethiopia to Egypt about 3000BC and it is possible that the
sorghum domestication began at that time
Introgression studies indicate that cultivated sorghums probably developed
through disruptive selection (Doggett 1965)
When and how sorghum spread from Africa is a matter of conjecture. Durra
types today extend continuously from Ethiopia, along the Nile to the Near East,
and across India to Thailand
The durra types were probably introduced to Arabia as early as the Sabian
Empire (1000-800BC) and later spread to the Near East along the trade route
Sorghum probably reached India by both land and sea routes. Its cultivation in
India is mentioned in legends that date back to the first century A.D. It is not
a very old crop in India and its Sanskrit name is Yavanala means reed barley or
reed grain suggesting that sorghum probably followed barley in India
Domestication
6. Classification
Snowden’s Classification (1936) –most detailed, comprehensive and is
much in use
Divided the genus into two sections:
1. Eusorghum (smooth nodes) – Halepansia and Arundinasea
Halepansia has five species
Arundinasea contains two series Sponstanea and Sativa.
Sponstanea contains the wild grassy types grouped into 21 species and
Sativa contains all the cultivated Sorghums falling into 31 species
grouped into six subseries viz; Drummondii, Nervosa, Bicolor,
Guineensia, Caffra and Durra
2. Parasorghum (Bearded nodes)
7. Harlan’s and De wet Classification (1972)
5 basic races of S. Bicolor ssp bicolor cultivated
races and ten hybrid races
Basic races
1. Race bicolor
2. Race guinea
3. Race caudatum (C)
4. Race kafir (K)
5. Race durra (D)
8. Characteristics of the basic races
• Bicolor: Grain elongate, sometimes
slightly ovate, nearly symmetrical dorso-
ventrally; glumes clasping the grain,
which may be completely covered or
exposed
• Caudatum: grain markedly asymmetrical,
the side next to the lower glume flat or
somewhat concave, the opposite side
rounded and bulging; the persistent
style often at the tip of a beak point
pointing towards the lower glume; half
the length of the grain or less
• Durra: grain rounded ovate, bulging and
widest above the middle, wedge shaped
at the base, glumes very wide; the tip of
a different texture from the base and
often with a transverse crease across
the middle
• Guinea: Grain flattened dorsoventrally,
sublenticular in outline, twisting at
maturity nearly 90⁰ between gaping
invoute glumes that are form nearly as
long to longer than the grain
• Kafir: Grain approximately symmetrical,
more or less spherical, not twisting,
glumes clasping and variable in length
1. Bicolor 2. Caudatum 3.
durra 4. Guinea 5. Kafir
10. The Gene Pool
• Harlan & De Wet (1972), the cultivated
races (S. bicolor ssp bicolor) and their wild
and weedy relatives (S. bicolor ssp
arundinaceum) form the primary gene pool.
• The secondary gene pool consist of the S.
halepense, miliaceum, Johnson grass and S.
almum.
• The tertiary gene pool consist of the
Saccharum, Sorghastrum and Miscanthus
11. • Grain type
-Kharif and rabi
• Fodder
-Single cut and multicut
• Sweet sorghum (bio fuel and fodder)
Classification based on Use
12. Botany
• Sorghum is annual/ perennial
grass, the roots are
adventitious and fibrous, stem
is erect and made up of nodes
and internodes, the pith may be
sweet, juicy or dry. The leaves
are 7 and 28 arranged
alternating to opposite side
with parallel venation. Presence
of waxy layer limits the water
loss. The panicle varies loose to
compact, in some varieties
panicle remain surrounded by
sheath and some times
penduncle recurred, giving
pendent head referred as
“goose neck”.
13. • Panicle consists of
spikelets in pairs; the
sessile is hermaphrodite
and fertile while other
pedicillate is sterile. The
sessile spikelet consists of
inner and outer glumes
enclosing two flowers,
upper one is perfect and
lower one is reduced. The
perfect flower has thin
narrow hairy lemma and
small pelia enclosing three
stamen, two lodicules and
bifurcated feathery
(brush like) stigma. The
pedicillate flower is
without pelia and ovary.
14. Grain
• Grain is caryopsis,
endosperm is
starchy, and embryo
consists of plumule,
coleoptiles, radical
coleorhizae referred
as scutelum
15. Basic Characteristics
Adaptability
• Sorghum adapts to many environments,
requiring 90 to 140 days to mature.
Highest yields are usually obtained
from varieties maturing in 100 to 120
days.
16. Water Relations
• Sorghum is usually grown under hot, dry conditions. Compared to
maize, sorghum has a more extensive and fibrous root system. The
plant roots penetrate a greater volume of soil to obtain moisture.
Fertilizer, even under low rainfall conditions, encourages root
development; hence the roots are able to extract moisture from a
greater volume of soil.
• Sorghum requires less moisture for growth than some other cereal
crops: studies show that sorghum requires 332 kg of water per kg
of accumulated dry matter; maize requires 368 kg of water;
barley, 434 kg; and wheat, 514 kg
• Sorghum tends to "hang on" during the dry period and resumes
growth with the return of rain.
• The water requirement of sorghum increases as the plant grows,
reaching a peak during the flowering period: after this time, the
moisture consumption decreases.
17. Temperature Relations
• Sorghum will make grain even when
temperatures are high. Crossing may be
difficult if temperatures are 40⁰C or
more, with relative humidity of 30% or
less; but a crop can be obtained if
moisture is available
• Floral development and seed set are
normal at temperatures of 40 to 430C
and at 15 to 30% relative humidity, if
soil moisture is available. Sorghum is
not as tolerant to cool weather
18. Floral biology and crossing
The flowering occurs prior to sunrise and extended up
to mid- day, the blooming starts from tip of the panicle
in downward direction.
The stigma is receptive before flowering and remains
receptive for 6 to 8 days.
Pollens are viable for few hours and fertilization is
completed with in 2 to 4 hours of pollination
Jawar is normally self pollinated crop but stigmas
exposed before dehisce lead to 6 to 30% cross
pollination.
The glumes open due to swelling of lodicules and
another come out stigma. The stigma remains receptive
for 8 to 16 days after blooming.
19. Emasculation & Pollination
Hand Emasculation:
• Only the part of the penduncle is emasculated. Flowered tips and lower
branches are removed by clipping. About 50 florets that would flower
on next day are selected and emasculated and covered with suitable
paper bag.
Hot Water Method:
• In this method the sorghum head is immersed in water at 45 0 to 48 0C
for 10 minutes, without injury to the stigma.
Plastic Bag Emasculation:
• In this method, sorghum panicle is covered with plastic bag. This
creates high humidity inside the bag. Under such a humidity, the
florets open, the anthers emerge but shed no pollen. The anthers are
knocked free of head by tapping. In this method, some selfing
occurs. Therefore, marker genes are needed to identify the plants
arising form selfed seed.
Pollination is done on next day between 9 to 10 a.m. all flower come to
bloom. Inserting and shading the head in the bag collect the pollen.
Another technique is clipping the heads early in the morning and placed
in the boxes or flower pots kept in protected place. The collected
pollens are dusted over exposed stigma or the pollen producing head
and brushed over emasculated head.
21. Breeding Objective for seed sorghum
• high yield (fertilizer responsive)
• wide environmental adaptiveness
• disease and insect resistance
• nonlodging
• appropriate time to maturity
• good plants at reasonable population levels
• good threshability
• general attractiveness
• height-about 1.25 to 2.0 metes
• large head size good head exsertion
• head not too compact or too grassy
• head erect rather than recurved
• good tillering, with heads on all culms maturing the same time
• good seed set
• seed size and number
22. Breeding Procedures:
Pure Line Selection:
• 1) M-35-1, 2) Sel-3, 3) Yashda , 4) Maulee( RSLG-262).
Pedigree Method:
• SPV-86 ( R-24 X R-16), SPV-504 (Swati) (SPV 86 X M-35-1), CSV -15 R, ( SPV-
475 X SPV-462)
Back Cross Breeding:
• Disease and pest resistance and also CMS can be transferred
• These conventional breeding methods, used as a short-term strategy produce
varieties with a relatively narrow genetic base, favor the accumulation of linkage
blocks due to rapid fixation of genes, and limit recombination options because of
continuous inbreeding
• Alternate Strategy – Population Improvement and Hybrid Breeding
- recombination to break linkages between desired and undesired traits,
- provides scope for increased utilization of biotic and abiotic stress resistant,
but agronomically non-elite source germplasm lines.
- provides long-term breeding strategy to derive diverse and broad genetic-
based superior varieties/hybrid parents
23. Population Improvement
• Purpose:
for improving a single trait;
for selecting several traits simultaneously;
for generating fertility restorer and non-
restorer (maintainer) populations for deriving
hybrid parents
Steps:
Selection of component parents
introgression of a GMS gene, and
random mating among parents.
24. Genetic male sterility genes, their designated symbols and mechanism of
sterility in sorghum. Source: Adapted from Rooney (2000).
Gene
symbol
Mechanism Reference
ms1 Normal pollen is dominant over aborted
or empty pollen cells
Ayyangar and Ponnaiya
(1937)
ms2 Normal pollen is dominant over aborted
or empty pollen cells
Stephens (1937)
ms3 Normal pollen is dominant over aborted
or empty pollen cells
Webster (1965)
ms4 Empty pollen cells Ayyangar (1942)
ms5 Aborted pollen Barabas (1962)
ms6 Micro-anthers without pollen Barabas (1962)
ms7 Empty pollen cells Andrews and Webster
(1971)
al Anther less stamens Karper and Stephens
(1936)
25. Population Improvement Methods in
Sorghum
Mass Selection
• Doggett (1972) has described modified mass selection with
alternating male sterile (female) and male-fertile (male) plants
selection in successive generations,
• Aimed at enhancing selection response by increased parental
control.
• In one cycle, seed is harvested from only selected male-sterile
plants. These seeds are bulked and sown to constitute the
population for the next cycle of selection, wherein, male-fertile
plants are selected and harvested seed from selected plants is
bulked for selection of male-sterile plants. This procedure is
continued.
• Mass selection should be used in the first few cycles of
selection after synthesis of a population.
• This makes populations reasonably uniform for plant height and
maturity before using methods of recurrent selection requiring
family/progeny evaluation.
26. Half-sib family/progeny selection.
• Requires two generations per cycle since it involves progeny testing
• Male-sterile plants are tagged at the time of flowering and are allowed
for open-pollination
• Each head is harvested and threshed separately. A part of the seeds
from each head is sown in yield trial (evaluation phase) and the remaining
is saved as remnant seed
• The best entries are chosen from the yield trials, and the remnant seed
from these entries is bulked to constitute the population for the
recombination phase
• Along with the replicated yield trial of half-sib families a separate
nursery is planted simultaneously to identify male-sterile plants
• Sib-mated male sterile heads are harvested and bulked with remnant
seed of families selected on the basis of grain yield and other selection
criteria as appropriate in a yield trial
• This bulk is sown to allow random mating in the next season
• Again, male-sterile plants are tagged and harvested individually to form
the next cycle of evaluation
• Recombination is carried out in the off-season and evaluation in the main
season.
27. Full-sib family/progeny selection
Full-sib families can be developed by crossing selected male-
fertile plants onto selected male-sterile plants
The full-sib families so generated are evaluated in a yield trial
and the remnant seed of the selected families is then bulked
and allowed to recombine
Crosses of male-fertile plants with male-sterile plants are then
made and the cycle repeats
In this scheme of selection, the unit of selection is full-sib
families and the breeder has the control over both the parents
unlike in half-sib family selection
28. S1 family/progeny selection
• Most effective selection schemes for sorghum (Gardner 1972)
• Heads of male-fertile plants are bagged at flowering to ensure
selfing, or they can be tagged to ensure that heads from male-fertile
plants and not male-sterile plants are harvested at maturity. Selected
plants are harvested and threshed separately, each head forming an
S1 family. These families are evaluated in yield trials
• Remnant seed from the families selected or their sibbed families
based on the yield trials is sown, and seed from male-sterile
heads are selected to ensure recombination
• Seeds from male-sterile heads are then bulked and sown
• Male-fertile heads of good plants are identified for testing to begin
next cycle
• The units of selection and recombination are S1 progenies
• The basic concept behind selfed progeny selection is to expose
deleterious recessive genes to facilitate their elimination during
evaluation and to increase additive genetic variation
29. S2 family/progeny selection
In this scheme of selection process, heads of
selected male-fertile plants are bagged at flowering
to ensure selfing, or they can be tagged to ensure
that heads from male-fertile plants and not male-
sterile plants are harvested at maturity.
The S1 progenies are grown and plants in S1 progenies
rows are selected and again selfed. Selected selfed
plants are harvested and threshed separately, each
head forming an S2 family
These S2 families are evaluated in yield trials and
handled exactly in a manner similar to that in S1
progeny selection and thus selfed/inbred progenies
constitute units of selection in both the methods
30. Advantages
S2 progeny testing is expected to result in maximum gain
per cycle
Additive genetic variance is maximized in S2 families;
the families are sufficiently uniform to permit precise
evaluation;
selection for different traits can be done in various
generations ranging from half-sib to S2 according to the
nature of their inheritance
the lines evaluated are more homozygous and it is hence
easier to extract pure lines.
evaluation is expected to improve the probability of
deriving more vigorous inbred lines
31. Testcross family/progeny selection
A number of male-fertile plants from the base
population are selected and selfed and
simultaneously crossed to a broad based tester. The
resultant testcross progenies are evaluated in a
yield trial to identify promising families, the units of
selection
The remnant seed of selected testcross progenies is
bulked and sown and allowed for open pollination
with male-sterile plants
Seeds from male-sterile heads are then bulked and
sown
Male-fertile heads of good plants are identified for
test crossing to begin next cycle
32. Inter-population improvement methods
Half-sib reciprocal recurrent selection
In this scheme of selection, each population provides a source material to
advance/ improve and also serves as a tester for the other population
Individual selected male-fertile plants in one population, designated as ‘A’ will be
crossed to several random male-sterile plants of the other population designated as
‘B’. In a similar manner, several selected male-fertile plants of population ‘B’ are
crossed onto several random male-sterile plants of population ‘A’
The crosses thus generated are evaluated in a yield trial and seeds from selected
male-fertile plants are bulked and grown in isolation
Incorporate heterozygous male-sterile plants into these populations. Allow for
random pollination of male-sterile heads.
Harvest seed from male-sterile plants in each population and bulk to constitute
the new populations from which male-fertile plants would be selected and crossed
to male-sterile plants from the other population and the cycle repeats
34. History of sorghum breeding- the
hunt for cytoplasmic male sterility
The hybrid vigor was first recognized in
sorghum by Karper and Corner, in 1927-
produced by hand-emasculation
In 1948, researcher initiated studies to look
for cytoplasmic male sterility as a method for
commercial seed production in sorghum
Reciprocal crosses between Milo and Kafir
produced first evidence that a male sterility
inducing cytoplasm has been found (Stevens and
Holland, 1954)
35. Hybrid Grain Sorghum Production (3 parent lines)
A-Line
Male Sterile
B-Line
Maintainer
X
A-Line
Male Sterile
X
R-Line
Restorer
Hybrid
36. Identification B- and R-Lines
• Hybrids are obtained by crossing
pollinators with a male sterile line
• The test crosses are evaluated for the
sterility maintenance or fertility
restoration in them through bagging test
• Bagging test- covering 4-6 panicles with
paper bag before anthesis, and observing
the seed set after two to three weeks
37. Evaluation of test cross
Reaction Conclusion Further usage
Test cross exhibiting
absolutely no seed set
on all the bagged
panicles
Mainter or B-line Source of a new A-line
Test cross with
complete seed set on all
the bagged panicles
Potential restorer or R-
Line
Serve as male parents
to produce hybrids
Testcross with a partial
seed-set on all the
bagged panicles
Serves neither as
restorer nor as
maintainers
Male parents are
rejected
Testcrosses with full
seed-set on some
bagged panicles and no
seed-set in others
Segregation for
fertility- restoration or
sterility- maintainer
genes
Not pursued further
40. Similar to grain sorghum
Has dual-purpose nature -
grain and sugar-rich stalks
Pilot studies indicated
ethanol production from sweet
sorghum cost-effective
High water-use efficiency,
seed propagation, hybrid
technology in place
CO2 neutral
High positive energy balance
(1:8)
Why Sweet Sorghum????
41.
42. Breeding Strategy
Development of
a. Improved sweet sorghum varieties, hybrid
parents and hybrids
b. Improved bmr varieties, hybrid parents
and hybrids
c. Improved crop management practices
Public-Private-People Partnerships
43. Why Hybrids???
Heterosis for cane , grain and juice
yields, and total sugar
More stable compared to varieties
Early and predictable maturity
Easy to schedule cane supplies
44. Brown midrib sources and improved lines
• bmr mutant sources: IS 21887 ( bmr 1), IS
21888 (bmr3), IS 21889 (bmr 6), IS 21890
(bmr 7) and IS 21891(bmr 8), IS 40602
(bmr 12)
• Sources used: bmr 1, bmr 3, bmr 7
• Potential sources: bmr 6, bmr 12
• Number of high biomass bmr B-lines - bmr
1: 2, bmr 3: 3, bmr 7: 6
• Number of high biomass bmr R-lines - bmr
1: 10, bmr 3: 3, bmr 7: 9
46. Quality Parameters
• Crude protein (CP) or digestible crude protein
(DCP) and total digestible nutrients (TDN)
which are measurable in synonymous terms as
measures of dry matter digestibility (DMD) or
digestible dry matter (DDM).
• Total soluble sugars (TSS), HCN, tannins, acid
detergent fibre (ADF), neutral detergent fibre
(NDF), sweetness (reducing sugars), in vitro dry
matter digestibility (IVDMD), intake (cellulose
digestibility after 24 and 48 hours of
incubation), nutritive value index (NVI) and
metabolizable energy (ME).
48. Interspecific hybrids
• Unlike sorghum, sorghum-sudangrass
hybrids tiller profusely, produce
succulent stems, have high leaf to stem
ratio, re-grow quickly, withstand multi-
cuts, and are low in HCN and tannins.
• Single and three-way interspecific
hybrids have been developed
49. Sorghum Breeding in ICRISAT
• Sorghum improvement started in 1972
• Breeding concepts and objectives and the mode of
research involving partners have undergone several
changes since the initiation of sorghum improvement
at ICRISAT and the evolution can be grouped into six
major phases-
1. Wide adaptability and high grain yield (1972-1975)
2. Wide adaptability and screening techniques (1976-1979)
3. Regional adaptation and resistance breeding (1980-
1984)
4. Specific adaptation and resistance breeding (1985-
1989)
5. Trait-based breeding and sustainable productivity
(1990-1994)
6. Upstream research and intermediate products (1995
onwards)
50. Wide adaptability and high grain
yield (1972-1975)
This period was characterized by the generous support of
development investors and an immediate need to develop
varieties with wide adaptability and higher grain yield
Higher grain yield, primarily in the red grain background, was
the major breeding objective.
Population improvement through recurrent selection was carried
out in 33 populations collected from the USA (from the
universities of Nebraska, Purdue and Kansas) and Australia, and
from the programs in West Africa (Nigeria) and East Africa
(Tanzania
Resistance to shoot fly, grain mold and Striga was considered
important later on and programs to identify resistant sources
were initiated. Studies on grain characters that contribute to
food and nutritive traits such as high lysine content were also
begun
51. Wide Adaptability and Screening Techniques (1976-1979)
The major research thrusts during this period were (a)
identifying high-yielding genotypes; (b) developing efficient
screening techniques for yield constraints; and (c) identifying
sources of resistance
New variability was generated by crossing male-sterile plants in
populations with select germplasm lines or named cultivars to
select for high grain yield. Population breeding approaches
Greater emphasis was laid on breeding photoperiod-insensitive
varieties with earliness. Screening techniques to identify
sources of resistance to major pests and diseases (including
Striga) were given major emphasis during this phase
While retaining the emphasis on population improvement,
programs for wide adaptability, high grain yield and specific
pedigree breeding were also initiated for (a) drought resistance;
(b) stalk rot resistance and postrainy season adaptability; (c)
downy mildew resistance; and (d) grain mold resistance in cream
colored grain genotypes.
A major shift in selection from red-grained to white-grained
genotypes occurred during this phase. Research on food grain
quality was pursued with greater vigor.
52. Regional Adaptation and Resistance Breeding (1980-1984)
This phase was characterized by (a) intensive testing of
varieties in international trials for high grain yield in
various regions and in international nurseries for
resistance to various pests and diseases; (b) initiation of
work on regional adaptability including tolerance to early-,
mid- and late-season drought; (c) breeding for high grain
yield and resistance to various pests and diseases to
ensure sustainability of production; (d) large-scale
production and testing of hybrids; and (e) further
refinement of various screening techniques for grain mold,
downy mildew, rust, anthracnose, leaf blight, charcoal rot,
shoot fly, stem borer, midge and Striga
techniques to screen materials for emergence under high
temperatures and crusting, and for tolerance to early-,
mid- or late-season drought were also developed
Collaborative research was initiated at various locations
53. Specific Adaptation and Resistance
Breeding (1985-1989)
This period was characterized by regional network
trials and development of high-yielding and
pest/disease-resistant pure lines.
Concerted efforts were made to identify the major
abiotic and biotic constraints in each region and a
breeding program was initiated to develop
multifactor-resistant (MFR) populations and targeted
populations. As a result, there was a shift from
developing high-yielding populations to MFR
populations
54. Trait-based Breeding and Sustainable
Productivity (1990-1994)
Population improvement was scaled down to gene pool development
as it was not found to be as efficient as pedigree breeding in
meeting short-term goals
Combining several resistance traits at one time is less efficient.
Hence, a trait-based breeding approach was initiated
A participatory mode of research planning and execution was
followed
an extensive program of diversifying and breeding new milo
cytoplasmic male-sterile lines for earliness, introgression with
Durra and Guinea races, incorporating bold and lustrous grain
characters, and resistance to Striga, shoot fly, stem borer, midge,
head bug, grain molds, downy mildew, anthracnose, leaf blight and
rust was carried out
Novel populations or trait-specific gene pools for bold grain and
high productive tillering were developed
55. Upstream Research and Intermediate Products
(1995 Onwards)
emphasis was laid on upstream research including biotechnology tools
emphasis is to produce parental lines (seed parents and pollen parents) and gene
pools. Accordingly, the objectives of the program are to breed resistant seed
parents and restorer lines, to develop specific new gene pools and novel plant types
and to identify and use molecular markers
Diversification of the genetic base of breeding lines is an important objective,
which is achieved by intercrossing resistant sources of diverse origin – often of
different races – with agronomically elite lines
At ICRISAT-Patancheru, recurrent selection is practised in broad-based, random-
mating populations or gene pools for specific traits [such as maintainer (B),
restorer (R), high tillering (HT), large grain (LG)]
In West and Central Africa (WCA), the development of random-mating populations
of Guinea and Caudatum and another Guinea × Caudatum races has been completed
These populations will have good agronomic backgrounds and adaptability while
preserving their broad genetic variability
Another important goal is to broaden the cytoplasmic-genetic diversity of hybrid
parents.
