2. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
Earliest authenticated resuscitation in the medical
literature: “miraculous deliverance of Anne Green,”
By wrenching her teeth apart, poured hot fluid into her
mouth
Rubbing her fingers, hands, arms, and feet
Tickling her throat with a feather
3. Term “shock” first employed in 1743 regarding battlefield
wounds
In 1830, Herman: first descriptions of intravenous fluid
therapy
Sydney Ringer: credited for lactated Ringer’s solution
In 1924, Rudolph Matas: originator of modern fluid
treatment, concept of the continued IV drip
4. INTRODUCTION
WATER CONTENT
Adult males 60-65% of body weight
Adult female 45-50% of body weight
Water: most abundant constituent in the body
Obese adult have less TBW per Kg than lean
adult
Total body water = 0.6 * weight(in kg)
7. Osmolality: The solute or particle concentration of a
fluid
Expressed as milliosmoles per kilogram of water
(mosmol/kg)
Water crosses cell membranes to achieve osmotic
equilibrium (ECF osmolality = ICF osmolality)
8. WATER MOVEMENT ACROSS
THE CAPILLARY WALL
STARLING FORCES :
1.Capillary pressure
2. Plasma colloid osmotic pressure
3. Interstitial fluid pressure
4. Interstitial fluid colloid osmotic pressure
9. WATER BALANCE
• Normal plasma osmolality: 275–290 milliosmol/kg
• In steady state, Water intake = water excretion
• Gastrointestinal excretion: minor component of total
water output, except in patients with vomiting, diarrhea,
or high enterostomy output states
• Evaporative or insensitive water losses: regulation of
core body temperature
13. Primary stimulus for water ingestion: thirst
Mediated either by an increase in effective osmolality or
a decrease in ECF volume or blood pressure
Osmoreceptors: stimulated by a rise in tonicity
Normally, 600 milliosmols must be excreted per day
Minimum urine output of 500 mL/d required for neutral
solute balance (maximal urine osmolality 1200
milliosmols/kg)
14. Nonosmotic factors that regulate ADH secretion:
effective circulating (arterial) volume, nausea, pain,
stress, hypoglycemia, pregnancy
Hemodynamic response: mediated by baroreceptors in
the carotid sinus
Sensitivity of these receptors is significantly lower than
osmoreceptors
16. CAUSES OF HYPOVOLEMIA
I. ECF volume contracted
A. Extra renal Na+ loss
1. Gastrointestinal (vomiting, nasogastric suction, fistula, diarrhea)
2. Skin/respiratory (insensible losses, sweat, burns)
3. Hemorrhage
B. Renal Na+ and water loss
1. Diuretics 2. Osmotic diuresis
3. Hypoaldosteronism 4. Salt-wasting nephropathies
C. Renal water loss
1. Diabetes insipidus
17. II. ECF volume normal or expanded
A. Decreased cardiac output
1. Myocardial, valvular, or pericardial disease
B. Redistribution
1. Hypoalbuminemia (hepatic cirrhosis, nephrotic syndrome)
2. Capillary leak (acute pancreatitis, ischemic bowel, rhabdomyolysis)
C. Increased venous capacitance
1. Sepsis
18. CLINICAL FEATURES
Careful history in determining the etiology of ECF
volume contraction (e.g., vomiting, diarrhea, polyuria)
Mild: Nonspecific symptoms like fatigue, weakness,
muscle cramps, thirst, and postural dizziness
Severe: oliguria, cyanosis, abdominal and chest pain,
and confusion or obtundation indicating end-organ
ischemia
19. Diminished skin turgor and dry oral mucous membranes
Decreased jugular venous pressure, postural
hypotension, and postural tachycardia
Hypovolemic shock, manifest as hypotension,
tachycardia, cyanosis, cold and clammy extremities,
oliguria, and altered mental status
20. DIAGNOSIS
Thorough history and physical examination
Blood urea nitrogen and plasma creatinine
concentrations raised
BUN:creatinine ratio of 20:1 or higher
Urine Na+ concentration <20 mmol/L
Urine osmolality: >450 mosmol/kg
Specific gravity >1.015
22. TREATMENT
Therapeutic goal: to restore normovolemia with fluid
similar in composition to that lost and to replace ongoing
losses
Mild hypovolemia: corrected via the oral route
Severe hypovolemia: requires intravenous fluid therapy
23. Normal Needs for 70 kg Man per Day
WATER 2000 ml
URINE 1500 ml
SODIUM 1-1.5 mEq/kg
POTASSIUM 1 mEq/kg
24. FLUID THERAPY
Two components to fluid therapy:
1. Maintenance therapy replaces normal ongoing
losses
2. Replacement therapy corrects any existing water
and electrolyte deficits
25. MAINTENANCE THERAPY
Maintenance IV Fluid Calculation
• 4 mL/kg/hr for first 10 kg
• 2 mL/kg/hr for next 10 kg
• 1 mL/kg/hr for every kg over 20 kg
Eg. Sample Calculation for 45-kg Patient
• 10 kg × 4 mL/kg/hr = 40 mL/hr 10 kg × 2 mL/kg/hr =
20 mL/hr 25 kg × 1 mL/kg/hr = 25 mL/hr Maintenance
rate = 85 mL/hr
27. REPLACEMENT THERAPY
Total water loss in the form of vomiting, loose stools,
inadequate intake of fluid, insensible water loss
Usually given as a bolus of 2 liters
Free water deficit = (([Na]/140) − 1) × TBW
28. TYPES OF IV FLUID SOLUTIONS
1. Crystalloids: having small “crystalizable” particles like
normal saline, ringer lactate, hypertonic saline
2. Colloids:
• large particles like albumin
• 250ml Albumin = 4L NS
• Adverse effect: anaphylaxis
33. Normal saline (0.9% NaCl): Solution of choice in
normonatremic and most hyponatremic individuals
Should be administered initially in patients with
hypotension or shock
Hypernatremia reflects a proportionally greater deficit of
water than Na+
Require a hypotonic solution such as half-normal saline
or 5% dextrose in water
34. • Patients with significant hemorrhage, anemia, or
intravascular volume depletion: require blood
transfusion or colloid containing solutions (albumin,
dextran)
35. MONITORING FOR PATIENTS IN
SHOCK
Minimum
● ECG ● Pulse oximetry
● Blood pressure ● Urine output
Additional modalities
● Central venous pressure
● Invasive blood pressure
● Cardiac output
● Base deficit and serum lactate
37. CLINICAL FEATURES
Cardiovascular
Changes
Respiratory
Changes
Skin
Changes
Neurologic
Changes
GI Changes
o Bounding
pulse
o Distended
neck veins
o ↑ BP
o ↑ respiratory
rate
o Shallow
respirations
o ↑ dyspnea with
exertion or in
the supine
position
o Pulmonary
congestion and
pulmonary
edema
o SOB
o Irritative
cough
o Moist
crackles
o Edematous
may feel cool
o Skin may feel
taut and hard
o Edema-
eyelids,
facial,
dependent
(sacrum),
pitting,
peripheral
extremities
o Altered LOC
o Visual
disturbances
o Skeletal
muscle
weakness
o Cerebral
edema
o Headache
o Confusion
o Lethargy
o Diminished
reflexes
o Seizures,
coma
o Increased
motility
o Enlarged
liver
37
42. SODIUM
Major extracellular cation
Normal range of serum sodium 135 - 145 mEq/L
Daily sodium requirement: 1-1.5mmol/kg
Hyponatremia and hypernatremia, controlled by ADH
46. SODIUM DEPLETION
1.Decrease intake
a) Low Na diet b)Enteral feeds
2. Increase loss
Gastrointestinal Losses
a) Vomiting b) Prolonged NGT suctioning
c) Diarrhea
Renal Losses
a) Diuretics b)Primary renal disease
3. Depletional hyponatreamia is often accompanied by
extracellulr volume deficit
.
47. TREATMENT
Sodium Deficit:
Sodium deficit (mEq) = [Na+] goal − [Na+] plasma x0.6xbodyweight
Ex- 60kg male with s.sodium 125mEq
Sodium deficit (mEq) =(140mEq-125mEq)x.6x60=540mEq
Infusion of normal saline 0.9%, hypertonic (HTS) may be required.
HTS is available commercially(in 3%, 5% concentrations)
48. The volume of fluids needed should be taken into
consideration.
Scenario 1:
If patient is hypovolemic :0.9% normal saline is fluid of
choice.
Scenario 2:
If patient is hypervolemic : hypertonic saline (3%HTS,
5%HTS) is fluid of choice
49. • No more than 10 mEq/day of sodium should be corrected
Rapid correction of hyponatremia
Pontine myelinolysis
Seizures, weakness/paresis, akinetic movements,
unresponsiveness
Permanent brain damage
Death
50. HYPERNATREMIA
Sodium concentration > 145 mEq/l
Moderate hypernatremia (146 to 159 mEq/l)
Severe hypernatremia (>160 mEq/l)
(confusion, muscle weakness, restlessness, insomnia,
central pontine myelinolysis)
51. • Causes:
Inadequate water intake
Decrease ADH synthesis
Failure of renal tubular cells to respond to ADH
Increased salt intake or infusion
Loss of body water.
Infusion of sodium (like HTS)
52. SIGN AND SYMPTOMS
Think S-A-L-T
Skin flushed
Agitation
Low grade fever
Thirst
Neurological symptoms : due to dehydration of brain
cells (Restlessness, lethargy, ataxia, irritability, tonic
spasms, delirium, seizures, coma)
Signs of hypovolemia :(Oligouria)
53. TREATMENT
• Correction of hypernatremia depends on volume status.
Hypovolemic patients: isotonic fluids(D5%)
Euvolemic : hypotonic fluids(N/2 saline)
Hypervolemic patients : diuretics.
Synthetic analogue of ADH: DDAVP(1-desamino-8-D
arginine vasopressin) in diabetic incipidus
54. Sodium levels should not corrected too rapidly : cause
cerebral edema.
In acute hypernatremia: 1 to 2 mEq/hr
In chronic hypernatremia: 0.5 mEq/hr.
55. POTASSIUM
Major intracellular cation
Normal K+ levels : 3.5 - 5 mEq/L
Daily average intake of potassium about 1mmol/kg
The renin-angiotensin-aldosterone hormone axis is the
key regulator of potassium clearance(causes Na+
reabsorption and K+ excretion)
Most K+ ingested is excreted by the kidneys
57. SIGN & SYMPTOMS ,ECG
CHANGES
• Hypokalemia is associated with generalized fatigue and
weakness, ileus, acute renal insufficiency.
• K+ <2.5 meq/liter: Rhabdomyolysis
• K+<2 meq/liter: Flaccid paralysis with respiratory
compromise
• ECG will show depressed T waves and U waves.
• CVS: atrial tachycardia, atrioventricular dissociation,
ventricular tachycardia, ventricular fibrillation.
58. TREATMENT
Increase dietary/oral K+: 40 to 100 mEq/day in two to
four doses
Change to K+ sparing diuretics
IV K+ replacement:
NEVER GIVE IV PUSH POTASSIUM.
The IV rate is 10 to 20 mEq/hr.
Concentrations should not exceed 40-60 mEq/L.
67. TREATMENT
Orally: Calcium carbonate
Intravenously :
• Acute symptomatic hypocalcemia (calcium level < 7.0
mg/dL)
• IV calcium gluconate ,The first 100 to 200 mg of
elemental calcium (1 to 2 g calcium gluconate) should be
given during 10 to 20 minutes.
• Followed by a slow calcium infusion at 0.5 to 1.5
mg/kg/hr.
69. Causes:
Hyperparathyroidism: parathyroid hyperplasia
Cancer: Multiple myeloma, lymphoma, and solid tumors
metastatic to bone (particularly breast, lung, and
prostate cancer)
Milk-alkali syndrome
Vitamin A and D overdose
Granulomatous diseases
Drugs like thiazide diuretics and lithium.
70. • Signs and symptoms of hypercalcemia:
Nonspecific: nausea, vomiting, altered mental status,
constipation, depression, lethargy
Myalgias, arthralgias
Polyuria, headache
Abdominal and flank pain (renal stones)
Coma.
• Abdominal groans, psychic moans, and renal stones.
71. TREATMENT
Drink plenty of fluids
IV NS 200-300ml/hr ,maintain urine output 100-150 ml/hr
loop diuretics: furosemide
Exogenous Calcitonin
Excision of parathyroid glands
Malignant neoplasm : surgical excision, radiation therapy,
or chemotherapy.
Bisphosphonates : reduce osteoclast-mediated release of
calcium from bone
Chelating agents (EDTA or phosphate salts)
72. MAGNESIUM
• Divalent cation
• Serum magnesium 1.5 and 2.0 mEq/liter.
Helps produce ATP
Role in protein synthesis & carbohydrate metabolism
Regulates muscle contractions
74. TREATMENT
1. For asymptomatic and mild hypomagnesemia
administer oral mg.
2. For severe deficit (<1meq/L) or symptomatic patient:
8 to 12 g of magnesium sulfate in the first 24 hours
followed by 4 to 6 g/day for 3 or 4 days to replete body
stores.
Monitor by
Deep tendon reflexes
Urine output
Serum Magnesium levels
75. HYPERMAGNESEMIA
Serum Mg2+ level > 2 mEq/L
Not common
Renal dysfunction/failure is most common cause
IV magnesium overdose
Chronic oral ingestion of magnesium
76. SIGN, SYMPTOMS AND ECG
CHANGES
Decreased neuromuscular activity
Loss of deep tendon reflexes
Occasionally nausea/vomiting ,ileus ,urinary retention
Bradycardia , complete heart block and cardiac arrest
ECG: prolonged PR interval, increased QRS duration,
and prolonged QT interval
78. TREATMENT
Stop all infusion of magnesium
Increased fluids if renal function normal
Loop diuretic if no response to fluids
IV Calcium gluconate for toxicity 10% (10 to 20 ml
during 10 mint.)
Hemodialysis in patients with renal insufficiency
79.
80. • Case Scenario : in a 60kg man with intestinal obstruction
NG Aspirate- 2 L
Urine output- 1.2 L
Electrolyte: Na and K with in normal limits
Insensible fluid loss-800ml
Total volume required- 2L+1.2L+0.8L=4.0L
81. Total volume required=4L
Electrolyte requirement: loss by NG aspirate
Na+=120meq/l and k+=10meq/l
2L NG loss Na+=240meq
K+=20meq
Daily requirement: Na+ 1-1.5meq/kg=60-90meq
k +1meq/kg= 60meq
Total Na+ =240+60=300meq
k+ =20+60=80meq
500ml of 0.9%saline has 77meq Na+(154meq/L)
82. • Hence to give 300meq of Na+ 2L(77x4=308) of 0.9% saline
required
• Therefore remaining 2L is 5% dextrose additional 4 amp of K+
(20x4=80meq) have to be added in 4 unit of 5% dextrose
• So 4 unit saline and 4 unit 5% dextrose required with 1 amp of
kcl in each dextrose unit
83. TAKE HOME MESSAGE
• Fluid therapy has to be carefully adjusted to body weight,
losses and electrolyte levels
• Hypervolemia can be because of decreased body fluids
and sodium loss
• Categorize the hemorrhagic shock and treat accordingly
• NEVER GIVE IV PUSH POTASSIUM
• Never overtreat electrolyte imbalances as may lead to
sudden death
84. REFRENCES
The biological basis of modern surgical practice ,
sabiston textbook of surgery
Bailey & love’s short practice of surgery
Harrison’s Principles of internal medicine
Internet