Theories of Personality: State and Trait Approaches to Personality

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Theories of Personality
State and Trait Approaches To Personality
M S Ahluwalia

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Psychology Super-Notes
Personality: Theories and Assessment

Psychology.PsychoTechServices.com

Psychology Super-NotesPsychoTech Services Psychology Learners 5
State and Trait Approaches To Personality >> Traits and Types
Theories of
Personality
Type (State) and
Trait Approaches
Dynamic
Approaches
Learning &
Behavioural
Approaches
Humanistic
Approaches
Focus of this document

Traits and Types
State and Trait Approaches To Personality >> Traits and Types
Trait Approach
• Traits are descriptive terms that represent
characteristics that lead people to behave
in more or less distinctive and consistent
ways across situations.
• Example: wilful, determined, flamboyant,
strong, impulsive etc.
• Assumes that there are continuous
dimensions such as warmth, extraversion,
etc. that vary in quality as well as degree.
• Attempts to explain personality and
differences between people in terms of
their personality traits
• Uses these measures for understanding and
predicting a person’s behaviour.
Type Approach
• Type is a class of individuals said to share
a common collection of characteristics.
• Example: Introverts, Extraverts.
• Typologies are groupings/sets of types.
• The earliest effort to explain human
behaviour involved the use of personality
typologies, which classified behaviour into
discrete, all-or-nothing categories.
• An attempt was made to make sense of a
person’s behaviour, and on that basis
predict future behaviour.
• Assumes that there are separate, and
discontinuous categories into which
individuals fit
• Attempts to explain personality and
differences between people in terms of
their personality types
• Uses these measures for understanding and
predicting a person’s behaviour.

Definition and Concept of Personality and Personality Development >> Contents
Contents
7
Approaches to Personality
1. Type
Approaches
1.1. Four Humor Theory
1.2. Sheldon’s Somatotypes
1.3. MBTI
2. Trait
Approaches
2.1. Allport’s Trait Approach
2.2. Cattell’s Trait Approach
2.3. Eysenck’s Type/ Trait
Hierarchy
2.4. Guilford’s Trait Theory
2.5. Five Factor Model

State and Trait Approaches To Personality >> Type Approaches to Personality
1. Type Approaches To Personality
Critique
• Type approach to personality fails to provide a satisfactory classification system
because all people cannot be fitted into prescribed types.
• Types are not descriptive of the persons – they ignore the uniqueness of individuals
by placing them into a preconceived category.
Type Approaches
to Personality
1.1. Four Humor
Theory
1.2. Sheldon’s
Somatotypes
1.3. MBTI

• Hippocrates a Greek Physician circa 400 B.C. (and later on Galen) classified individuals into four
exclusive types according to four basic internal fluids or humors each associated with a
particular temperament (see diagram below )
• The dominance of any one fluid led to a particular personality temperament
Later, on the basis of observation of patients, Hippocrates pointed out that people with short and thick bodies were
prone to stroke and those with tall, thin bodies to tuberculosis.
Blood –
Sanguine
temperament
(cheerful and active)
Phlegm –
Phlegmatic
temperament
(apathetic and
sluggish)
Black Bile -
Melancholic
temperament
(sad and brooding)
Yellow Bile –
Choleric temperament
(irritable and excitable)
Four Humors
Critique
The theory was popular
for centuries, though
now it has been
established by scientific
research that
personality and moods
are not driven by bodily
fluids.

• William Sheldon, an American Physician tried to relate physique to temperament.
• On the basis of somatotype (body build), he assigned each individual to one of the
three categories ectomorphs are, endomorphs are whereas mesomorphs are.
• Sheldon’s theory has not been substantiated and has proved of little value in predicting
individual behaviour (Tylor, 1965). In addition, people belonged to many different shape
and size and not all can be fitted to the Sheldon’s three types.
Somatotype Endomorphs
• Persons who are fat,
round and soft.
Ectomorphs
• Persons who are tall,
thin and fragile.
Mesomorphs
• Persons who are
strong, muscular and
rectangular.
Temperament • Relaxed, fond of
eating, sleeping and
sociable
• Artistic, brainy and
introverted
• Affective, dominant,
filled with energy and
courage

1.3. Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
• MBTI is a modern typology based upon Carl Jung’s theory of personality types.
• Using MBTI, individual’s self-reported preferences are used to assess four dimensions of
personality:
• MBTI identifies 16 personality types using Jung’s dichotomies
of E-I, S-N and T-F, and Isobel Myer’s dichotomy of J-P.
• A person taking MBTI, is assigned one pole of each dichotomy
and the combination of dichotomies would determine which
of the sixteen types best describes him.
• For example, a person described as ESFP (Extraverted-
Sensing-Feeling-Perception) would be characterised as
outgoing, easy-going, accepting, and friendly. And would be
considered best for situations that need sound common sense
and practical ability with people as well as with things.
Advantages
• Its categories are distinct or discontinuous
• People of any one type are very much like each other, and can
be distinguished from other types.
Critique
• While the four dimensions are informative, persons should be
described according to their actual scores on each
dimension rather then being mixed into types.
E-I
Extraversion-
Introversion
S-N
Sensing-
iNtuition
T-F
Thinking-
Feeling
J-P
Judging-
Perceiving

Contents
12
1. Type
Approaches
1.3. MBTI
2. Trait
Approaches
Hierarchy

2. Trait Approaches/Theories
State and Trait Approaches To Personality >> Trait Approaches to Personality
Trait Approaches
to Personality
2.1. Allport’s
Trait Approach
2.2. Cattell’s
Trait Approach
2.3. Eysenck’s
Type/ Trait
Hierarchy
2.4. Guilford’s
Trait Theory
2.5. Five Factor
Model

Contents
14
1. Type
Approaches
1.3. MBTI
2. Trait
Approaches
Hierarchy

2.1. Allport’s Trait Approach (1/3)
• Allport is regarded as one of the most important and influential personality theorists. He is known
as idiographic trait theorist with a strong belief that each person has some unique as well as
some common characteristics that together form a unique combination of traits.
• According to him,
− Traits are the building blocks of personality as well as the source of individuality.
− Trait is something that exists but remains invisible. It is located somewhere in the nervous
system (Ryckman, 1993).
− All the individual traits (pg. 15) together form the structure of personality which, in turn,
determines the behaviour of an individual.
− Only by focussing upon the uniqueness of the individual, a scientific and substantial
understanding of personality is possible.
Definition of Traits – The Lexical Approach
• Allport created a list of about 18,000 words
from the English Dictionary that described
personal traits (Alport & Odbert, 1936).
• On the basis of these words, attempt was
made to create an extensive list of traits
like dominance, friendliness, self-esteem,
etc.
• This is called lexical approach to define
personality traits
Proprium
• Allport held that personality is not a mere
bundle of unrelated traits, rather it embodies
a unity, consistency and integration of
traits.
• This integration work is accomplished by
self or ‘Proprium’ as he called it.
• The Proprium or self develops continuously
from infancy to death, and during this period
it moves through a series of stages.

Identification of Traits
• The existence of a trait is inferred
by observing consistencies in the
behaviour of the person.
• Dissimilar stimuli tend to arouse a
trait readiness within the person
and then trait manifests itself
through the varieties of different
responses.
• All these responses are equivalent
as they serve the function of
expression of trait.
• Example: An employee working in
your office. His shyness is inferred
from his inability to establish
friendship with others, avoidance
of employees’ social gatherings,
enjoyment of solitary
entertainment activities and
unwillingness to participate in
discussions etc.
Motivational and Stylistic Traits
• Motivational Traits:
• All types of individual traits
(see next page) are dynamic
as they possess motivational
power.
• Those individual traits or
dispositions which are
intensely experienced are
said to be more
motivational.
• Stylistic Traits: Those individual
traits which are less intensively
experienced though possessing
more motivational power are
said to be stylistic.
• Whether motivational or stylistics,
some individual traits are close
to the core of the person’s
personality whereas some are at
the periphery.

Allport divided traits into the following major categories:
TypesofTraits
Common Traits
Individual Traits
Cardinal Traits
Central Traits
Secondary Traits
Common Traits
• Those traits which we share in common
with many others in our culture.
• For example being quiet, showing due
respect to seniors and polite behaviour are
traits we share with others in Indian culture.
Individual Traits or Personal
Dispositions
• Those traits which are unique to
the person concerned.
• Allport regarded individual traits
to be more important than
common traits.
Cardinal Traits
• A trait which is so pervasive, dominant and outstanding
in life that every behaviour seems traceable to it.
• Most people do not have cardinal traits, but those who
have them, their entire behaviour is dominated by it.
• Example: Mahatma Gandhi’s cardinal traits – he was
peace-loving and had strong faith in non-violence
Central Traits
• Those traits which are generally listed in a
letters of recommendation.
• Any trait like friendliness, dominance, self-
centeredness would be the example of central
trait.
• Every person has several central traits and
there are five to ten most outstanding traits in
each person around which a person’s life
focuses.
Secondary Traits
• Traits which are less conspicuous, less consistent, less generalised
and less relevant to the definition of personality.
• Example, food habits, hair style, and specific attitudes are examples of
secondary traits.

Contents
18
1. Type
Approaches
1.3. MBTI
2. Trait
Approaches
Hierarchy

2.2. Cattell’s Trait Approach (1/6)
• According to Raymond Cattell
− personality is a pattern of traits
− Traits providing the key to understanding personality and predicting an individual’s behaviour.
− The traits are relatively permanent and broad reaction tendencies of personality.
− They serve as the building blocks of personality.
He classified traits in three broad ways:
TypesofTraits
1. Surface Traits vs. Source Traits
2. Constitutional Traits vs. Environmental Mould Traits
3. Ability Traits vs. Temperamental Traits vs. Dynamic Traits Dynamic Traits
3.1 Attitudes
3.2 Urges
3.3 Sentiments

1. Surface Traits vs. Source Traits
• a
Note:
• Source traits are smaller in number than
surface traits.
• They are better predictors of human
behaviour.
Illustrative example
Intelligence
(Source Trait)
Kindness
(Surface
Trait)
Honesty
(Surface)
Helpfulness
(Surface)
Generosity
(Surface)*Using questionnaires and observations, Cattell studied several
thousand people and he reported certain cluster of surface
traits that appeared together from time to time. He reported
that these were evidence of some deeper, more general
underlying personality factors, which he referred to these as
source traits.
Surface Traits/
Central Traits
• The observable qualities
of a personality like
kindness, honesty,
helpfulness, generosity,
etc.
Source Traits*
• Source traits make up
the most basic structure
of personality and are
responsible for the
inter-correlation among
surface traits.
• We all possess the same
source traits but not in
the same amount.

1. Surface Traits vs. Source Traits contd.
• Cattell found 23 source traits in normal persons. He studied 16 of these in detail, which were then
used to construct the Sixteen Personality Factors (16PF) Questionnaire
• The sixteen factors identified by Cattell are:
Reserved
Outgoing
Less
Intelligent More
Intelligent
Emotional
Stable
Humble
Assertive
Sober Happy-Go-
Lucky
Expedient
Conscientious
Shy
Venturesome
Tough-
Minded Tender-
Minded
Trusting
Suspicious
Practical
Imaginative
Forthright
Shrewd
Placid
Apprehensive
Conservative
Experimenting
Group-
tied Self-
Sufficiency
Casual
Controlled
Relaxed
Tense

1. Surface Traits vs. Source Traits contd.
• In addition to the 16 factors measured by personality test, Cattell, on the basis of his subsequent
research proposed seven new factors:
1. Excitability
2. Zeppia (zestful) vs. Coasthemia (individualistic)
3. Boorishness vs. Mature Socialisation
4. Sanguine casualness
5. Group dedication with sensed inadequacy
6. Social Panache
7. Explicit self-expression.
Clinical Analysis Questionnaire (CAQ)
• Using factor analysis in the surface traits of normal and abnormal personality spheres, Cattell
derived 12 new factors that measure psychopathological traits - hypochondriasis, zestfulness,
brooding discontent, anxious depression, energy euphoria, guilt and resentment, bored depression,
paranoia, psychopathic deviation, schizophrenia, psychasthenia and general psychosis.
• These 12 factors (all bipolar) have been combined with 16 PF for the construction of a new test
called Clinical Analysis Questionnaire (CAQ).
• After constructing CAQ, Cattell believed he had identified major source traits of both normal and
abnormal personality.
Note:
• Sixteen source traits in 16PF
can be used to distinguish
between normal and
neurotic individuals
• They fail to assess
psychotics and do not
assess all aspects of
deviant behaviour

• Using a statistical technique called MAVA (Multiple Abstract Variance Analysis), Cattell could assess
the degree to which various traits are determined either by environmental or genetically determined
factors. MAVA is based upon the comparisons between people of the same family either reared
together, or reared apart, or between members of different families reared either together or apart.
His findings indicate:
• Most surface traits reflect a mixture of both heredity (nature) and environment (nurture).
• Some source traits derive solely from within the individual (biology of the individual - nature)
and some source traits derived solely from environmental factors (nurture).
Constitutional Traits
• Those traits which are determined by
nature or biology
Environmental Mould Traits
• Those which are determined by nurture
that is by experience gained in interaction
with environment.
2. Constitutional Traits vs. Environmental Mould Traits

Ability Traits
• Refer to the person’s skill
in dealing with the
environment and the
goals set therein.
• Example: Intelligence.
Temperament Traits
• Refers to stylistic
tendencies that largely
show how a person
moves towards a goal.
• Example: being moody,
irritable, or easygoing.
Dynamic Traits
• These are the person’s
motivation and interest
which set the person in
action toward the goal.
• Example: power-seeking,
ambitious or sports-
oriented.
The important dynamic traits in Cattell’s system are of three types:
3. Ability Traits vs. Temperament Traits vs. Dynamic Traits
DynamicTraits
3.1 Attitudes
3.2 Urges
3.3 Sentiments
• Attitudes are surface traits which are manifestations of underlying
motives.
• Urges are constitutional source traits through which Cattell has
recognised innately determined modifiable elements of behaviour.
• Cattell has identified ten urges: hunger, sex, self-assertion, pugnacity,
gregariousness, parental protectiveness, curiosity, escape,
acquisitiveness and narcissistic sex.
• Sentiment is an environmental mould dynamic source trait focusing on social object
• It results from experimental or socio-cultural factors.

Contents
25
1. Type
Approaches
1.3. MBTI
2. Trait
Approaches
Hierarchy

2.3. Eysenck’s Type-Trait Hierarchy
Hans Eysenck:
• Believed that personality is largely determined by genes and environmental factors have a
limited role to play.
• Opined that personality is more or less stable and enduring organisation of a person’s
character, temperament, intellect and physique. He emphasised upon traits (stable and
enduring characteristics) which when clustered together constitute a type.
For example
• ‘Extraversion’ is based upon observed
inter-correlations amongst traits like
liveliness, sociability, activity, and
excitability.
• These traits are inferred from inter-
correlations amongst habitual responses
such as going to club, like talking to
people, taking part in social activities at
the spur of the moment and so forth.
• These habits are themselves inferred
from some observable specific responses
like real occasion where the person
actually went to club, talked with people,
participated in group discussion, etc.
Eysenck theorised that personality is hierarchically organised:
Types
Traits
Habits
Single
Responses
Like actions and thoughts
Regularly occurring specific
observable responses
Inferred from inter correlations
amongst habitual responses
Also called super-factors. Based
on observed inter-correlations
amongst various traits.
More
Abstract
Less
Abstract

2.3.1. Eysenck’s Dimensions of Personality (1/2)
• Based upon numerous factor analyses on personality data gathered from different populations,
Eysenck derived two major factors or dimensions of personality, Extraversion/Introversion and
Neuroticism/Stability.
• Later, on the basis of further statistical analysis, he postulated a third dimension,
Psychoticism/Impulse control.
• These three dimensions, according to Eysenck, are the major individual difference types most
useful for describing personality functioning.
• To measure these three dimensions of personality, Eysenck developed a paper and pencil test,
which is now called Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ).

Individuals who are hostile, insensitive
to others, at times cruel and inhuman.
Eysenck believed that psychotics tend
to be creative (based on the responses
of schizophrenics after seeing the
Rorschach Test cards)
Introspective
individuals who
are more oriented
towards inner
reality and prefer
a well-ordered life.
Individuals who are sociable,
impulsive, like excitement and are
oriented towards external reality.
28
2.3.1. Eysenck’s Dimensions of Personality (2/2)
Eysenck’s three dimensions of personality are explained below:
Extraversion
Introversion
Neuroticism
Stability
Psychoticism
Impulse Control
Tip: Use acronym PEN to memorise
Individuals who are emotionally
unstable, and exhibit much more
anxiety than the situation demands.
May also be obsessive, impulsive,
unreasonably scared of objects,
persons, places, etc. Psychopaths are
an exception, the don’t feel anxiety.

2.3.2. Eysenck’s Inhibition Theory
• It explains why people who differed along the various dimensions should behave differently from
one another.
• According to Eysenck, individual differences along the extraversion/introversion dimension are
strongly determined by heredity and have their basic origins in the Cerebral Cortex of the central
nervous system.
• Drawing upon the work of Tephlov (1964) and Pavlov (1927), Eysenck pointed out that:
Extroverts
• Extroverts have relatively stronger
inhibitory processes and very weak
excitatory processes.
• Besides, their nervous systems are strong
which forces them to tolerate a high level
of stimulation.
• Their brains react more slowly and weakly
towards stimuli thereby creating a strong
desire for sensory stimulation which
causes them to seek excitement by going to
parties, making new friends, and attending
various types of meetings, etc.
Introverts
• Have very strong excitatory processes and
weak inhibitory processes.
• Their nervous system is weak which means
that they are able to tolerate a low level of
stimulation.
• Introverts are more cortically aroused and
their brains react quickly and strongly to
stimuli. Therefore, strong stimulation from
the environment proves to be aversive for
them and they tend to spend more time in
solitary activities like reading, writing,
playing chess, etc.

2.3.3. Eysenck’s Arousal Theory
• Inhibition theory has been replaced by arousal theory by Eysenck because inhibition and excitation
although were very useful concepts, were found to be extremely difficult to assess.
• Arousal theory has the advantage of identifying the physiological systems underlying individual
differences in extraversion / introversion and neuroticism / stability.
Ascending Reticular Activating
System (ARAS)
• It is a network of fibres going
upward from the lower brain stem
to the thalamus and cortex.
• Some other fibres descend from
the lower brain stem which
influences the activities of bodily
muscles and autonomic nervous
system. Such descending fibres
can also modulate the activity of
the brain stem.
• The relation between ARAS and
cortex is reciprocal, that is, ARAS
activates the cortex, which, in
turn, influences ARAS either by
increasing or inhibiting the
excitability.
Arousal Theory – Differences between Extroverts and Introverts
• Behavioural differences are due to the various parts of ARAS.
• Introverts have innately higher levels of arousal than
extraverts, therefore, they are more sensitive to stimulation.
Arousal Theory - Neuroticism
• The seat of neuroticism lies in visceral brain or limbic system.
• Parts of visceral brain - hippocampus, amygdala, cingulum,
septum and hypothalamus generate emotionality.
• Since visceral brain and ARAS are only partially independent,
cortical and autonomic arousal can also be produced by
activities of the visceral brain. Such activities produce arousal
in sympathetic nervous system, causing increase in heart rate,
breathing rates and loss of digestion, etc.
• Neurotic individuals have lower thresholds for activity in
visceral brain and greater responsivity of sympathetic
nervous system. Therefore, neurotics are innately more
reactive to stimulation.

Contents
31
1. Type
Approaches
1.3. MBTI
2. Trait
Approaches
Hierarchy

Psychology Super-NotesPsychoTech Services Psychology LearnersSociology Super-NotesPsychoTech Services Sociology Learners 32
An individual personality
is nothing but the individual’s
unique pattern of
traits.
J. P. Guilford

Aspects of Personality and the Seven Modalities of Traits (bright
red)
33
• As evident from Guilford’s
definition of personality on the
previous page, for him, trait is
any distinguishable, relatively
enduring way in which one
person differs from another.
• Using factor analysis, Guilford
came to the conclusion that there
are seven modalities of traits
− These modalities are not seven
separate constituent parts of
personality
− Personality is an integrated
whole and these seven
modalities are seven different
directions from which the
whole can be viewed
− Therefore, personality is not the
sum total of seven traits but
rather a whole or single entity
which can be looked at from at
least seven different angles.
Personality
Somatic
Traits
1
Morphological
2
Physiological
Behavioural
Aspects of
Personality
Hormetic
Responses
3
Needs
4
Interest
5
Attitudes
6
Aptitudes
Perceptual
Psychomotor
Intelligence
7
Temperament

2.4.1. Somatic Traits
Guilford (1959) reported very little relationship between morphological and physiological traits
although Sheldon (1942) earlier had reported a high correlation between physique and temperament.
Somatic Traits represent strictly physical and physiological characteristics, including head size,
general bodily length, and muscular thickness.
Refer to physical functions such as heart rate, breathing
rate, hormone level, blood sugar and so forth
Refer to physical attributes such as physique, head size,
length of hand and leg, size of ear, curvature of spine, etc.
SomaticTraits
1. Physiological Traits
2. Morphological Traits

2.4.2. Behavioral Aspects of Personality
Personality
as expressed
and
understood
from the
behaviour of
an individual.
• The biological and social
motives underlying an
individual's aspirations
and interests.
• Hormetic traits instigate
action as they are
somewhat directly
related to motivation.
• According to Guilford (1959) temperament refers to the
manner in which the individual performs a behaviour.
• Example: whether a person is impulsive, tolerant,
deliberate or critical in his or her behaviour
BehavioralAspects
Hormetic (Adaptive)
Responses
3
Needs
4
Interests
5
Attitudes
6
Aptitudes
(see next page)
7
Temperament
• Relatively permanent dispositions that motivate the person
towards certain condition.
• Example, prestige or food instigate action towards getting social
prestige or ending hunger.
• A person’s generalised behaviour
tendency to be attracted by some
stimuli.
• General (not specific) traits and
valued positively (not negatively)
• Also refers to liking to perform some
activities. All such interests contribute
to causation of behaviour.
• A disposition to favour or not to favour a
social object or social action.
• Attitudes are cognitive, affective and
conative as they involve belief, feelings and
action
• Instigate behaviour - having an attitude
forces a person to think, feel and act
accordingly.
• Example: one’s views about premarital sex

2.4.2.1 Aptitudes
• Refer to how well an individual can perform a given activity
• They represent a dimension of ability though they are more specific than abilities. Therefore, all
aptitudes are abilities but not all abilities are aptitude.
• For example, a tall person has the ability to reach the highest shelf but this is not his aptitude.
Using factor analysis, Guilford (1959) identified three primary aptitudes:
Aptitudes
Perceptual Aptitudes
Psychomotor Aptitudes
Intelligence
Relate to the various sense modalities and include factors like
visual, auditory and kinaesthetic sensitivity.
Abilities shown by physical educators, dance instructors and
athletic coaches.
A general aptitude, covering aspects like memory recording,
memory recovery etc. covered in Structure of Intellect theory

2.4.2.2 GZTS for temperament assessment
Guilford-Zimmerman Temperament Survey can be used to assess 10 bipolar traits of temperament:
Sociability
Shyness
Emotional
Stability Depression
General
Activity Inactivity
Restraint
Impulsiveness
Ascendance
Submissiveness
Objectivity
Subjectivity
Friendliness
Hostility
Thoughtfulness
Unreflectiveness
Personal
Relations Criticalness
Masculinity
Feminity

2.4.3. Guilford’s Levels of Trait Generality
Types
Primary
Traits
Hextic
Traits
• Displayed by a person only in specific situations.
• For example, Donald who is generally shy and reserved, may show dominance and
aggression before his friends for wining the competition. Here dominance and
aggression are examples of hexic level trait and determine his specific actions.
• Manifested in broader range of behaviour than hexic traits.
• For example, when Donald shows dominance and aggression most of the time in his
behaviour, it means these two are his primary traits.
• Determined to some extent by types.
• When a person’s behaviours generally revolve around any single disposition
• Thus types are composed of primary traits with positive intercorrelations.
• For example, an extravert type may be recognised through observation of high
correlations among the primary traits of sociability, orientation towards external reality,
impulsiveness, love for contacting other people, tolerance for pain, etc.
• Guilford did not emphasise as much on types as Eysenck.

Contents
39
1. Type
Approaches
1.3. MBTI
2. Trait
Approaches
Hierarchy

2.5. Five Factor Model/Big Five Model (1/4)
• Based on his own and others’ researches Goldberg (1981) stated that it is possible to prepare a model for
structuring individual differences among traits of personality.
• According to this model there are five broad personality factors, each of which is composed of
constellation of traits.
• Big Five was meant to refer to the finding that each factor subsumes a large number of specific traits.
They are almost as broad and abstract as Eysenck’s Superfactors.
• The Big Five dimensions of personality with names assigned by McCrae and Costa (1987) are:
Tip: Use acronym OCEAN to memorise
Big 5 Factors
Openness Conscientiousness Extraversion Agreeableness Neuroticism

Extraversion
• Assesses quality
and intensity of
interpersonal
interaction, i.e.,
contrasts
extraverted traits
with introverted
traits
• High scorers are
sociable, active,
talkative, person-
oriented,
optimistic, fun-
loving and
affectionate,
• Low scorers are
reserved, sober,
aloof, task
oriented, retiring
and quiet.
Neuroticism
• Assesses
adjustment
(emotional
stability) vs.
emotional
instability.
moody, irritable,
nervous, insecure,
and
hypochondriacal.
• They are prone
to emotional
instability and
experience
negative
emotion
• Low scorers are
calm, relaxed,
unemotional,
hardy, self-
satisfied etc.
Conscientiousness
• Assesses degree
of organisation,
persistence and
motivation in
task and goal
directed and
socially required
impulse control
behaviour.
dependable,
organised, hard
working,
responsible,
reliable and
thorough
• Low scorers are
undependable,
disorganised,
unreliable,
impulsive,
irresponsible,
lazy and
negligent
Agreeableness
• Assesses the
person’s quality
of interpersonal
orientation
ranging from
compassion to
antagonism in
thinking, feeling
and action.
soft-hearted,
good-natured,
trusting, helpful,
straightforward
and forgiving
• Low scorers are
cynical,
suspicious,
uncooperative,
vengeful, irritable
and manipulative.
Openness
• Assesses
proactive
seeking and
appreciation of
experience for its
own sake as well
as tolerance for
and exploration
for the something
new and
unfamiliar.
good-natured,
warm,
sympathetic and
cooperative
• Low scorers are
unfriendly,
aggressive,
unpleasant,
argumentative,
cold and even
hostile.

Big 5 Personality Assessment
• For assessing the Big Five dimensions:
− Goldberg (1992) developed a questionnaire named Transparent Bipolar Inventory
− Another questionnaire to assess Big Five has been developed by Costa and McCrae (1992) called the
NEO-Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R).
• It is much more popular than TBI.
• Originally, it assessed only N, E and O but later two factors A and C were also included.
• Each dimension or factor is defined by six facets and each facet is measured by 8 items.
• The latest version of NEO-PI-R consists of a 240 items (5 factors × 6 facets × 8 items).
• Based on several studies, McCrae and Costa (1990) believe these five factors as measured by NEO-
PI-R are sufficient for describing the basic dimensions of personality - “no other system is as
complete and yet so parsimonious”.
• Longitudinal studies support trait approach:
− McCrae and Costa (1990) studied personality traits of persons over time and found them to be stable
for 3 to 30 years.
− They opined that stable individual differences in basic dimensions are universal feature of adult
personality.

Criticism
• Trait approach (like type) doesn’t explain the causes or development of personality. It identifies and
describe characteristics, which are correlated with behaviour
• Consistency of our behaviour across situations is very low and therefore, not predictable on the basis
of personality traits.
• Walter Mischel (1968) claimed that the situation, and not our traits, determines the behaviour
initiating the person-situation debate, that is, question of relative importance of person and situation in
determining the behaviour of the persons.
− Mischel later modified his stance and proclaimed that behaviour is shaped by both the person
(traits) and the situation.
− Other psychologists have also provided support for the view that there are some internal traits which
strongly influence behaviour across different situations (Carson, 1989; McAdams, 1992).

Version 1.0
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