Advanced Social Psychology for IGNOU students

IGNOU MAPC material© 2015, M S Ahluwalia Psychology Learners
MPC004/ASST/TMA/2014-15
IGNOU Assignment

Advanced Social Psychology
Solved Assignment - MAPC

1000 words
Section A
3

Define social influence.
Elaborate the concept and
principles of compliance.
Q1.
4

Social influence
5
A1
It refers to the influence of others on an individual’s behavior. Human behavior is influenced by other people in
countless ways and on a variety of levels. The mere presence of others—as co-actors or spectators—can stimulate or
improve one’s performance of a task, a process known as social facilitation (and also observed in nonhuman species).
However, the increased level of arousal responsible for this phenomenon can backfire and create social interference,
impairing performance on complex, unfamiliar, and difficult tasks.
Overt, deliberate persuasion by other people can cause us to change our opinions and/or behavior. However, a great
deal of social influence operates more subtly in the form of norms—acquired social rules that people are generally
unaware of until they are violated. For example, every culture has a norm for “personal space”—the physical distance
maintained between adults. Violation of norms generally makes people uncomfortable, while adherence to them
provides security and confidence in a variety of social situations. Norms may be classified as one of two types:
descriptive and injunctive. Descriptive norms are simply based on what a majority of people do, while injunctive
norms involve a value judgment about what is proper and improper behavior.
Both conformity and compliance are attempts to adhere to social norms—conformity occurs in response to unspoken
group pressure, as opposed to compliance, which results from a direct request. Research has shown that conformity
is influenced by the ambiguity of a situation (people are more apt to go along with the majority when they are
uncertain about which course of action to pursue), the size of the majority, and the personal characteristics of the
people involved, including their self-esteem and their status within the group. A person may conform by acting in
accordance with group norms while privately disagreeing with them (public conformity) or by actually changing his or
her opinions to coincide with those of the group (private acceptance).
In contrast to compliance, which characterizes behavior toward those who make direct requests but have no
authority over us, obedience is elicited in response to a specific demand by an authority figure.

Social influence contd.
6
A1
Another type of social influence that can lead normal people to engage in cruel or antisocial behavior is participation
in a crowd or mob. Being part of a crowd can allow a person’s identity to become submerged in a group, a process
known as deindividuation. Contributing factors include anonymity, which brings with it a reduction of accountability;
a high level of arousal; and a shifting of attention from oneself to external events, resulting in reduced self-
awareness.
The concept and principles of compliance
Compliance refers to a response, specifically a submission, made in reaction to a request. The request may be explicit
(directly or overtly stated) or implicit (subtly implied). The target may or may not recognize that he or she is being
urged to act in a particular way. In social psychology, compliance is considered a social influence, meaning it is based
on the effect that the words, actions, or mere presence of other people have on thoughts, feelings, attitudes, or
behavior.
Persuasion and the gaining of compliance are particularly significant since they use the power of social influence to
attain submission of others. Compliance affects everyday behavior, especially in social interactions. Social
psychologists view compliance as a means of social influence used to reach goals or attain social or personal gains.
Social psychology focuses on people as a whole and how thoughts, feelings, and behaviors allow individuals to attain
compliance. In studying compliance, social psychologists aim to examine overt and subtle social influences
experienced and their relationship to compliance.
Compliance: The Underlying Principles
Some years ago, Robert Cialdini, a well-known social psychologist, decided that the best way to find out about
compliance was to study what he termed compliance professionals— people whose success (financial or otherwise)
depends on their ability to get others to say yes. Who are such people? They include salespeople, advertisers,
political lobbyists, fundraisers, politicians, con artists, professional negotiators, and many others.

The concept and principles of compliance contd.
7
A1
Cialdini’s technique for learning from these people was simple: He temporarily concealed his true identity and took
jobs in various settings where gaining compliance is a way of life. In other words, he worked in advertising, direct
(door-to-door) sales, fund-raising, and other compliance focused fields. On the basis of these firsthand experiences,
he concluded that although techniques for gaining compliance take many different forms, they all rest to some
degree on six basic principles (Cialdini, 1994, 2008):
1. Friendship/liking: In general, we are more willing to comply with requests from friends or from people we like
than with requests from strangers or people we don’t like.
2. Commitment/consistency: Once we have committed ourselves to a position or action, we are more willing to
comply with requests for behaviors that are consistent with this position or action than with requests that are
inconsistent with it.
3. Scarcity: In general, we value, and try to secure, outcomes or objects that are scarce or decreasing in availability.
As a result, we are more likely to comply with requests that focus on scarcity than ones that make no reference
to this issue.
4. Reciprocity: We are generally more willing to comply with a request from someone who has previously provided
a favor or concession to us than to someone who has not. In other words, we feel obligated to pay people back in
some way for what they have done for us.
5. Social validation: We are generally more willing to comply with a request for some action if this action is
consistent with what we believe people similar to ourselves are doing (or thinking). We want to be correct, and
one way to do so is to act and think like others.
6. Authority: In general, we are more willing to comply with requests from someone who holds legitimate
authority—or simply appears to do so.
According to Cialdini (2008), these basic principles underlie many techniques used by professionals—and ourselves—
for gaining compliance from others.

Summary and Sources
8
A1
To summarize, social influence is the influence of others on an individual’s behavior. The mere presence of others—as
co-actors or spectators—can stimulate or improve one’s performance of a task. Conformity, compliance and crowd or
mob are three forms of social influence. Conformity occurs in response to unspoken group pressure, as opposed to
compliance, which results from a direct request.
The techniques for gaining compliance rest to some degree on six basic principles – friendship/liking,
commitment/consistency, scarcity, reciprocity, social validation and authority.
Sources:
Gale Encyclopedia of Psychology
Social Psychology, 12th Edition by Robert A. Baron, Nyla R. Branscombe, Donn R. Byrne, Gopa Bhardwaj (Click for
eBook)
https://www.boundless.com/psychology/textbooks/boundless-psychology-textbook/social-psychology-20/social-
influence-104/compliance-395-12930/

Discuss main characteristics of
group formation. Explain theories
of group formation.
Q2.
9

Main characteristics of group formation
10
A2
A group involves people who perceive themselves to be part of a coherent unit that they perceive as different from
another group (Dasgupta, Banaji, & Abelson, 1999; Haslam, 2004). The extent to which the group is perceived to form
a coherent entity is known as entitativity.
The basis of this perceived coherence differs in different types of groups (Prentice, Miller, & Lightdale, 1994). In
common-bond groups, which tend to involve face-to-face interaction among members, the individuals in the group
are bonded to each other. Examples of these kinds of groups include the players on a sports team, friendship groups,
and work teams. In contrast, in common-identity groups the members are linked via the category as a whole rather
than to each other, with face-to-face interaction often being entirely absent. Ex: Nationalistic or gender-based
groupings.
Basic characteristics of groups include status, roles, norms, and cohesiveness:
1. Status: People gain status in a group for many reasons, ranging from physical characteristics (e.g., height) to
various aspects of their behavior (e.g., conforming to group norms). Status tends to be higher for those who are
prototypical of the group, or those who have seniority within the group.
2. Roles: The effects of roles on our behavior are often very powerful, primarily when we have internalized the role as
part of our identity.
3. Norms: Deviating from group norms can affect how other group members, especially those who highly identify
with their group, evaluate us. Norms can be collectivist or individualist.
4. Another important feature of groups is their level of cohesiveness—the sum of all the factors that cause people to
want to remain members. Perceiving a threat to one’s group can encourage actions that increase group cohesiveness.

Main characteristics of group formation contd.
11
A2
Characteristics of the various stages of group development include:
1. Forming: It is characterized by a great deal of uncertainty about the group’s purpose, structure and leadership. This
stage is complete when members have begun to think of themselves as part of the group.
2. Storming: It is characterized by intragroup conflict. Members accept the existence of the group, but there is
resistance to the constraints that the group imposes on individuality.
3. Norming: It is characterized by a strong sense of group identity and carmaraderie. Close relationships develop and
the group demonstrates cohesiveness.
4. Performing: It is characterized by a fully functional and accepted structure. Group energy has moved from getting
to know and understand each other to performing the task at hand.
5. Adjourning: In this stage the group prepares for disbandment. Attention is directed towards wrapping up activities.

Theories of group formation
12
A2
The various theories dealing with group formation are discussed below:
1) Propinquity theory: quite often, individuals affiliate with one another because of spatial or geo-graphical
proximity. In an organization, employees who work in the same area of the plant or office would more probably form
into groups than those who are not physically located together. The propinquity theory explains a basic factor, i.e.,
proximity of people at the workplace, which leads to formation of groups. This phenomenon is observed in daily
practice by all of us.
2) Homans' theory: according to George C. Homans, "the more activities persons share, the more numerous will be
their interactions and the stronger will be their shared activities and sentiments; and the more sentiments persons
have for one another, the more will be their shared activities and interactions". The homans theory has contributed a
great deal to the understanding of group formation. It is based on three concepts, namely, activities, interactions and
sentiments, which are directly related to each other. The members of a group share activities and interact with one
another not just because of physical proximity, but also to accomplish group goals. They key element is interaction
because of which they develop common sentiments for one another.
3) Balance theory: the theory as proposed by Theodore Newcomb states that "persons are attracted to one another
on the basis of similar attitudes towards commonly relevant objects and goals. Once a relationship is formed, it
strives to maintain a symmetrical balance between the attraction and the common attitudes. If an imbalance occurs,
attempts are made to restore the balance. If the balance cannot be restored, the relationship dissolves". Both
propinquity and interaction play a role in the balance theory. Thus, the balance theory is additive in nature in the
sense that it introduces the factor of 'balance' to the propinquity and interaction factors. There must be a balance in
the relationship between the group members for the group to be formed and for its survival. If they fail in their
efforts, the group will get dissolved.

Theories of group formation contd., Summary and
Sources
13
A2
4) Exchange theory: this theory is based on reward-cost outcomes of interaction between people. To be attracted
towards a group, a person thinks in terms of what he will get in exchange of interaction with the group members. Thus,
there is an exchange relationship in terms of rewards and costs of associating with the group. A minimum positive level
(rewards greater than costs) of an outcome must exist in order for attraction or affiliation to take place. Rewards form
interactions gratify needs while costs incur anxiety, frustrations, embarrassment, or fatigue. Propinquity, interaction and
common attitudes all have roles in the exchange theory.
5) Social identity theory: It suggests that membership of a group may enhance the sense of identity and self-esteem of
a member. This motivates the members to be a part of the group and causes cohesiveness. Such groups are typically,
organizational, cultural or demographic in nature.
* * *
To summarize, a group involves people who perceive themselves to be part of a coherent unit that they perceive as
different from another group. Basic characteristics of groups include status, roles, norms, and cohesiveness. The various
stages of group development are Forming, Storming, Norming, Performing and Adjourning. Forming is characterized by
uncertainty about the group’s purpose. Storming is characterized by intra-group conflict. Norming is characterized by a
mature set of norms for the group members and Performing is characterized by performance – the group starts working
towards its objective.
The various theories of group formation include propinquity theory, Homan’s theory, Balance Theory, Exchange theory
and Social Identity theory.
Sources:
http://www.tutorsglobe.com/getanswer/theories-of-group-formation-organizational-behavior-90529.aspx
Social Psychology, 12th Edition by Robert A. Baron, Nyla R. Branscombe, Donn R. Byrne, Gopa Bhardwaj (Click for eBook)

Discuss the nature of social conflict.
Explain the methods of conflict
resolution with their application to
social conflicts in India.
Q3.
14

The Nature of Social Conflict
15
A3
Sometimes, members of society may perceive their personal interests as incompatible, and instead of coordinating
their efforts, may work against each other, often producing negative results for all. This is known as conflict, and can
be defined as a process in which individuals or groups perceive that others have taken, or will soon take, actions
incompatible with their own interests (DeDreu, 2010).
The nature of conflict is discussed below:
1. Conflict is correlative to power: Power, simply, is the capability to produce effects; conflict is the process of powers
meeting and balancing. To understand what powers succeed requires comprehending their conflicts; to understand
conflict involves untangling the powers involved.
2. Conflict can be a potentiality or a situation: Reality comprises multiform and interwoven potentialities,
dispositions, and powers. What aspect becomes manifest (turn into a situation) depends on the dialectical
confrontation between this reality and our perspective, which is a power, an outward directed vector.
3. Conflict can be an event or a process: Conflict is a process, for has a nasty way of escalating—from simple mistrust,
through a spiral of anger, to actions designed to harm the other side. It may also be an event that happens once and
never repeats.
4. Conflict is universal: Our learning about ourselves, others, and reality, our growth and development, and our
increasing ability to create our own heaven or hell, comes through conflict. It exists everywhere.

Methods of conflict resolution and their application to
social conflicts in India
16
A3
Conflicts within groups are often likely to develop under conditions of scarce resources where group members must
compete with each other to obtain them. A variety of social factors can play a strong role in initiating and intensifying
conflicts. Because conflicts are costly, people are motivated to resolve them.
Following are some conflict resolution methods:
Bargaining
The most common strategy for resolving conflicts is bargaining or negotiation (Pruitt & Carnevale, 1993). In this
process, opposing sides exchange offers, counteroffers, and concessions, either directly or through representatives. If
the process is successful, a solution acceptable to both sides is attained, and the conflict is resolved. If, instead,
bargaining is unsuccessful, costly deadlock may result and the conflict is likely to intensify.
An important determinant of the outcome of bargaining involves the overall orientation of the bargainers to the
process (Pruitt & Carnevale, 1993). People taking part in negotiations can approach such discussions from three
distinct perspectives (also known as scientific approaches).
1. They can view the negotiations as “win–lose” situations in which gains by one side are necessarily linked with
losses for the other. So they try to win at any cost. The typical solution is forcing/competing. Ex: The wars over
Kashmir, where both India and Pakistan want to win due to its strategic and military importance.
2. They can view negotiations as “lose-lose” situations in which both the sides will necessarily suffer losses. The
typical solution is to compromising, smoothing or withdrawing. Ex: When two communities are fighting over petty
issues such as “loudspeakers during festivals” and members end up in jail.
3. They can approach negotiations as potential “win–win” situations in which the interests of the two sides are not
necessarily incompatible and in which the potential gains of both sides can be maximized. The typical solution is
confrontation and problem solving or collaborating. Ex: Separatist movements where allowing the separatists to
surrender and become part of mainstream population creates a win-win situation for both.

social conflicts in India contd.
17
A3
The last approach produces more favorable results in the long run—and is typically what is used when negotiating
major long-running conflicts. When the two parties communicate clearly about their underlying needs, a new option
that satisfies both parties’ needs can often be found. This technique—called bridging—is one of many techniques for
attaining such integrative solutions to conflicts.
Pro-social behavior
Research has found that when members belonging to one of the parties involved in conflict engage in some kind of
prosocial behavior, such as giving charity, working for welfare, helping in distress etc., toward members of other
community, it impacts the perception and thus the attitude towards them. This can lead to significant reduction in
conflict.
Example: It has been seen that in times of hardships Gurudwaras have opened their doors for Muslims to offer Id
prayers and Mosques have opened their doors to Hindus to offer Puja, which have been projected as examples of
communal harmony throughout the country.
Super-ordinate Goals
Members of groups in conflict often divide the world into two opposing camps—“us” and “them.” They perceive
members of their own group (us) as quite different from, and usually better than, people belonging to other groups
(them). These tendencies to magnify differences between one’s own group and others and to disparage outsiders are
very powerful and often play a role in the occurrence and persistence of conflicts.
They can be countered through the induction of super-ordinate goals— goals that both sides seek, and that tie their
interests together rather than driving them apart (Sherif et al., 1961). When opposing sides can be made to see that
they share overarching goals, conflict is often sharply reduced and may, in fact, be replaced by overt cooperation.

social conflicts in India contd., Summary and Sources
18
A3
Example: Two villages who may be in conflict over water resources can be shown that if they work together to
construct a road to the next water resource, their problems will be permanently solved.
Third Party intervention
Mediation by an arbitrator or third party plays a crucial role in conflict resolution. The third party typically helps in
the problem solving process – helping generate a solution that appears to be “win-win” for both the parties.
Considering the solution is obtained through open discussion and negotiation, the chances of its success are high.
Example: In cases of conflict between various states over issues such as water and power sharing the central
government or the relevant political parties may act as mediators to ensure that an amicable solution is reached.
* * *
Scarcity of resources of interest or perception that interests are incompatible can cause conflict. By nature conflict is
correlative to power, it can be a potentiality or a situation, it can be an event or a process and it is universal. It can be
resolved using various methods such as bargaining (includes various ways such as compromising, smoothing and
confrontation and problem solving), pro-social behavior and setting superordinate goals. In any case third party
intervention may prove to be beneficial to the contract resolution process.
Sources:
eBook)
https://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/TCH.CHAP26.HTM

400 words
Section B
19

Explain schemas and prototypes
with reference to impression
formation.
Q4.
20

Schemas and prototypes with reference to impression
formation
21
A4
Impression Formation: It is the process through which an individual forms impressions about others. Every individual
organizes information about another person to form an overall impression of that person. Impression formation
focused on the way in which people pay particular attention to certain unusually important traits – known as central
traits – to help them to form an overall impression of others.
Rather than absorbing each piece of new information about an individual in a vacuum, it is common for people to
invoke a preexisting prototype or schema based on some aspect of the person (for example, “grandmother” or
“graduate student”), modifying it with specific information about the particular individual to arrive at an overall
impression. One term for this process is schema-plus-correction. It can be dangerous because it allows people to infer
many things from a very limited amount of information, which partially explains why impressions are often wrong.
Schemas and impression formation
Implicit personality theories discuss beliefs about what traits or characteristics tend to go together (e.g., Sedikes &
Anderson, 1994). These theories, which can be viewed as a specific kind of schema, suggest that when individuals
possess some traits, they are likely to possess others, too. Such expectations are strongly shaped by the cultures in
which we live.
Example: in many societies it is assumed that “what is beautiful is good”— attractive people possess positive traits,
such as good social skills and an interest in enjoying the good things in life (e.g., Wheeler & Kim, 1997).
These tendencies to assume that certain traits or characteristics go together are very common and can be observed
in many contexts. Research findings suggest that schemas influence three basic processes: attention, encoding, and
retrieval.

Schemas and prototypes with reference to impression
formation contd., Summary and Sources
22
A4
Prototypes and impression formation
During person perception, the personality traits are grouped into personality types which serve as schemas. These
are known as prototypes. In impression formation we assign the person to a prototype. Once done, we assume the
person to possess all traits associated with the prototype.
Our impressions of others are, thus, often strongly shaped by our beliefs about what traits or characteristics go
together. These beliefs are often so strong that we will sometimes bend our perceptions of other people to be
consistent with them. We can form impressions of others that reflect our implicit beliefs more than their actual traits
(e.g., Gawronski, 2003).
Prototypes help us to recognize and categorise information about other individuals and the world around them and
accordingly align their social interactions.
* * *
To summarize, rather than absorbing each piece of new information about an individual in a vacuum, people invoke a
preexisting prototype or schema based on some aspect of the person (example: “grandmother” or “graduate
student”), modify it with specific information about the particular individual to arrive at an overall impression. It
helps people to organize the complex world and humans into a framework, that makes it easy to remember and
recall, even if there are, often, errors.
Sources:
eBook)

Define person perception.
Explain Bem’s self perception
theory.
Q5.
23

Person perception and Bem’s self perception theory
24
A5
Person perception
Person perception refers to the different mental processes that we use to form impressions of other people. This
includes not just how we form these impressions, but the different conclusions we make about other people based
upon our impressions. It concerns social processing issues like what information we extract when we see other
people, how we interpret what we see, and how this interpretation influences our subsequent behavior.
Research has highlighted the non-veridical nature of person perception, revealing a number of biases that are relied
upon in order to cope with the enormous complexity of social information processing such as Attribution Errors,
Context Effects, and social categorization.
Bem’s self perception theory
Self-perception theory (SPT) is an account of attitude formation developed by psychologist Daryl Bem. It asserts that
people develop their attitudes (when there is no previous attitude due to a lack of experience, etc.—and the
emotional response is ambiguous) by observing their own behavior and concluding what attitudes must have caused
it. The theory is counterintuitive in nature, as the conventional wisdom is that attitudes determine behaviors.
Furthermore, the theory suggests that people induce attitudes without accessing internal cognition and mood states.
The person interprets their own overt behaviors rationally in the same way they attempt to explain others’ behaviors.
The two postulates of the self-perception theory are:
1. When we want to know how a person feels, we look to see how he acts. Accordingly, when an individual himself
wants to know how he feels, he may look to see how he acts. The first postulate of the self-perception theory was
derived from this line of reasoning: Individuals came to “know” their own attitudes, emotions, and other internal
states partially by inferring them from observations of their own overt behavior and/or the circumstances in which
the behavior occurs.

Person perception and Bem’s self perception theory
contd., Summary and Sources
25
A5
2. The second postulate of the self-perception theory suggests a partial identity between self- and inter-personal
perception: to the extent that internal cues are weak, ambiguous or uninterpretable, the individual is functionally in
the same position as an outside observer, an observer who must necessarily rely upon those same external cues to
infer the individual’s inner states.
It is important to emphasize that neither the interpersonal observer not the individual himself is confined to
inferences based upon overt actions only. Experimental evidence of the self-perception theory was provided by the
facial feedback experiment and the false confession experiment.
* * *
“Person perception” is concerned with how we process information about people. It includes the mental processes
involved in forming impressions about people, and the conclusions we make about other. Self- perception theory
deals with a person’s attitude formation related to himself by observing own behavior. The first postulate states that
person infers own attitude by observing own behavior and the circumstances in which they occur. Second postulate
states that when internal cues are weak, person has to rely on external cues like an outside observer.
Sources:
Self perception theory, Daryl J. Bem
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-perception_theory
http://psychology.about.com/od/socialpsychology/a/person-perception.htm
http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199828340/obo-9780199828340-0136.xml

Discuss in brief: (i) Stereotypes (ii)
Quasi Experiment (iii) Control Group
and experimental group (iv) Social
Identity (v) Types of Prejudice
Q6.
26

Stereotypes and Quasi-Experiments
27
A6
Stereotypes
Stereotypes are considered the cognitive component of attitudes toward a social group—specifically, beliefs about
what a particular group is like and what the groups’ members are like. Stereotypes can include more than just traits;
physical appearance, abilities, and behaviors are all common components of stereotypic expectancies (Biernat &
Thompson, 2002; Deaux & LaFrance, 1998; Zhang, Schmader, & Forbes, 2009).
The traits thought to distinguish between one group and another can be either positive or negative, they can be
accurate or inaccurate, and may be either agreed with or rejected by members of the stereotyped group.
Source: Psychology, Robert Baron (Click for eBook)
Quasi Experiment
Quasi-experiments are studies which lack the control of a true experiment because one or more of its requirements
cannot be met, ex: deliberate use of an independent variable or random assignment of subjects to different groups.
Studies of the effects of drugs on pregnant women are based on data about women who have already been pregnant
and either taken or not taken drugs. Researcher can’t control assignment of subjects or choices presented to them,
but can measure differences between the two populations and obtain significant findings. Such studies provide a
basis for investigations that would otherwise be impossible.
Source: Gale Encyclopedia of Psychology

Control and Experimental groups, and Social Identity
28
A6
Control Group and experimental group
In experimental research, often participants are allocated truly randomly to an experimental group and a control
group, enabling unmeasured or unknown variables to be taken into account and strengthening claims for internal
validity.
The participants in experimental group are exposed to the independent variable such as a new drug, whereas, those
in control group are not.
Example: Participants in experimental condition (the positive mood condition) perform some task and receive
positive feedback on their work (i.e, praise). Those in the control condition would receive neutral feedback—
comments designed to have no effect on the participants’ current moods.
Sources:
Research Methods in the Social Sciences, Bridget Somekh and Cathy Lewin
Psychology, Robert Baron (Click for eBook)
Social Identity
According to social identity theory (Tajfel & Turner, 1986), we can perceive ourselves differently at any given moment
in time, depending on where we are on the personal-versus-social identity continuum.
At the personal end of this continuum, we think of ourselves primarily as individuals. At the social end, we think of
ourselves as members of specific social groups. We do not experience all aspects of our self-concept simultaneously;
where we place ourselves on this continuum at any given moment will influence how we think about ourselves.
Source: Psychology, Robert Baron (Click for eBook)

Types of Prejudice
29
A6
The different types of prejudice are:
1. Gender Prejudice: The attitude that all members of a particular gender -- all women, all girls, all men, all boys --
are a certain type of person.
2. Racial/Ethnic/Religious/Caste Minority Prejudice: When person of certain race, ethnicity, religion or caste is
believed to be inferior/superior to another.
3. Age Prejudice/Ageism: When person below/above a certain age is considered to be inferior/superior.
4. Class Prejudice/Classism: Belief or attitude that people of a certain economic class are inferior/superior.
5. Disability Prejudice/Ableism: The belief that those with physical or mental disabilities or handicaps are inferior
to able-bodied people.
Source: http://www.ehow.com/list_7467177_different-types-prejudice.html

Explain frustration aggression and
psychodynamic theory of
aggression.
Q7.
30

Frustration aggression
31
A7
In 1915, Freud had suggested that the frustration of behavior aimed at gaining pleasure or avoiding pain led to
aggression. In 1939, this hypothesis was further developed by Dollard, Doob, Miller, Mowrer & Sears, who were
interested in integrating the concepts arising from learning theory and psychoanalysis. They proposed that "the
occurrence of aggressive behavior always presupposes the existence of frustration and, contrariwise, ...the existence
of frustration always leads to some form of aggression".
Simply stating, aggression is a response to the frustration of some goal-directed behavior by an outside source. Goals
may include such basic needs as food, water, sleep, sex, love, and recognition.
Evidence exists that when frustrated, individuals do not always respond with aggression. They show many different
reactions, ranging from sadness, despair, and depression on the one hand, to direct attempts to overcome the source
of their frustration on the other. In short, aggression is definitely not an automatic response to frustration.
Second, not all aggression stems from frustration. Frustration is simply one of many factors that can potentially lead
to aggression. However, frustration can serve as a powerful determinant of aggression under certain conditions—
especially when it is viewed as illegitimate or unjustified (e.g., Folger & Baron, 1996).

Psychodynamic theory of aggression, Summary and
Sources
32
A7
In 1908, Alfred Adler proposed that aggression was an innate, primary instinctual drive. All behavior stemmed from
an aggressive 'masculine protest' against feelings of inferiority, sexuality being reduced to the man's aggressive
attempt to master the woman.
In 'Instincts and Their Vicissitudes' (1915), Freud suggested that aggressiveness, too, was a component of the ego
instincts - aggression, in other words, was at last given a formal place in the theoretical scheme, though not yet as a
full-fledged, separate instinctual drive in its own right (Nemiah, 1966).
In 1920, with a drastic revision of his theory, Freud subsumed both sexual and self-preservative instincts under Eros -
the life instinct - and postulated the existence of the death instinct, in opposition to Eros. Aggression was now no
longer considered to have its origins in the self-preservative instincts, but in the death instinct, and Freud compared
the polarity of love (affection) and hate (aggressiveness) with the polarity of the life and death instincts. Death
instinct is initially aimed at self-destruction, but is soon redirected outward, toward others.
Aggression springs mainly from an inherited fighting instinct, which ensures that only the strongest males will obtain
mates and pass their genes on to the next generation (Lorenz, 1966, 1974)
* * *
In 1908, Alfred Adler postulated the theory that aggression was an innate, instinctual drive. In 1915, Freud suggested
that frustration of behavior aimed at gaining pleasure or avoiding pain led to aggression. Later in 1920 he related
aggression to Thanatos, the death instinct. These form the core of the psychodynamic theory of aggression. In 1939,
Dollard, Doob, Miller, Mowrer & Sears, further proposed that aggression is caused by frustration and frustration
causes aggression, thus forming the Frustration-Aggression hypothesis.
Sources: http://rint.rechten.rug.nl/rth/dennen/a-panal.htm, Gale Encyclopedia of Psychology, Social Psychology, 12th
Edition by Robert A. Baron, Nyla R. Branscombe, Donn R. Byrne, Gopa Bhardwaj (Click for eBook)

Define pro-social behaviour.
Discuss theoretical perspectives to
pro-social behaviour.
Q8.
33

Prosocial Behavior and Theoretical perspectives to pro-
social behaviour
34
A8
Prosocial Behavior
Prosocial behavior refers to actions by individuals that help others, often with no immediate benefit to the helper. It
includes sharing, co-operation and altruism and is a common part of social life. Example: handing a plate of food to a
hungry person on the road, giving your umbrella to an elderly woman sitting unprotected in the rain, or rescuing
someone from a building on fire.
There are many reasons to explain why and when people render help to others. These various factors are discussed
below.
Theoretical perspectives to Pro-social behaviour
Empathy-Altruism hypothesis
Batson, Duncan, Ackerman, Buckley, and Birch (1981) offered the empathy-altruism hypothesis, which suggests that at
least some prosocial acts are motivated solely by the desire to help someone in need (Batson & Oleson, 1991).
Negative-State Relief model
The knowledge that others are suffering, or more generally, witnessing those in need can be distressing. To decrease
this distress in ourselves, we help others. (Cialdini, Baumann, & Kenrick, 1981). In this kind of situation, unhappiness
leads to prosocial behavior, and empathy is not a necessary component (Cialdini et al., 1987).
Empathic Joy Hypothesis (Smith, Keating, & Stotland, 1989)
It suggests that helpers enjoy the positive reactions shown by others whom they help. An important implication of this
idea is that it is crucial for the person who helps to know that his or her actions had a positive impact on the victim.

Theoretical perspectives to pro-social behaviour contd.
35
A8
Competitive Altruism
One important reason why people help others is that doing so boosts their own status and reputation and, in this
way, ultimately brings them large benefits, ones that more than offset the costs of engaging in prosocial actions.
Social Learning Theory
It suggests that observing significant others (parents or authorities) engaging in prosocial behavior, causes people to
behave pro-socially. Therefore, pro-social behavior is learned (Bandura, 1977; Bandura & McDonald, 1963; Batson,
1998).
Kin Selection Theory (Cialdini, Brown, Lewis, Luce, & Neuberg, 1997; Pinker, 1998)
From an evolutionary perspective, a key goal for all organisms—including us—is getting our genes into the next
generation. In general, we are more likely to help others to whom we are closely related than people to whom we are
not related (e.g., Neyer & Lang, 2003).
Social Identity Theory
Group identification leads to favouring and conferring positive distinctiveness on the ingroup when compared to the
salient outgroup (Hogg & Abrams, 1988).
Defensive Helping
Sometimes people help others—especially people who do not belong to their own ingroup—as a means of defusing
status threats from these people, i.e., to “put them down” in subtle ways and so reduce their threat to the ingroup’s
status.
Biological perspective
Rushton et al., 1986 and Rushton, 2004 state that by adulthood, approximately 50% of the variance in altruism,
empathy and social responsibility is due to genes and 50% to non-genetic factors.

Summary and Sources
36
A8
Prosocial behavior refers to actions by individuals that help others for no immediate benefit. There are different
theoretical perspectives about the causes as discussed above.
Sources:
eBook)
Introduction to Psychology by Clifford T. Morgan, Richard A. King, John R. Weisz, John Schopler (Click for eBook)

50 words
Section C
37

Explain the findings of Asch’s experiment on conformity.
38
A9
Asch’s experiment showed when people are confronted with a majority opinion, the tendency to conform may be
stronger than commitment to what they perceive to be true. He detailed his findings in ‘Opinions and Social Pressure’
(1955).
Findings:
· When surrounded by a group of people all giving the same incorrect answer, subjects gave incorrect answers on 32%
questions; 75% provided incorrect response for at least one question. This indicates a high degree of conformity by
the subjects. No participant conformed on all critical trials, and 26% never conformed.
· Those who broke away from the group opinion and provided an independent answer did not succumb to the
majority even over many trials. Those who chose to comply with the majority seemed unable to break this pattern.
· One confederate had negligible influence on the subject’s conformity, two had a small influence, three or more
encouraged a relatively stable tendency to conform.
· Even if only one confederate offered an alternative answer, subjects provided an independent (and correct)
response
· If participants were to give their answers privately (written on paper), conformity noticeably decreased, even if the
confederates were still giving their answers aloud.
* * *
Sources:
The Psychology Book

What were the findings of Milgram’s experimental study
of human obedience?
39
A10
Results of the experiment:
· 100% participants applied shocks up to 300 volts - point at which the learner began to shout in apparent pain.
· 35% applied shocks of between 300 and 375 volts, but then refused to apply any more.
· 65% continued the experiment to the end, applying the maximum shock of 450 volts as many times as requested.
Explanation:
The inclination to obey authority figures is an important factor in determining behavior, even in extreme
circumstances. Obeying the “scientist” was violating participants’ sense of morality and negatively affecting them
both physically and emotionally, but the pressure to comply was simply too powerful to defy in most cases.
Milgram also turned to the theory of conformism - when a person has neither the ability nor expertise to make a
decision, he will look to the group to decide how to behave. Conformity can limit and distort an individual’s response
to a situation, and seems to result in a diffusion of responsibility.
The conflict between a person’s conscience and external authority exerts a huge internal pressure, which accounted
for the extreme distress experienced by the participants.
* * *
Sources:
The Psychology Book

Explain evolutionary theory of interpersonal attraction.
40
A11
Cooperating with other people almost certainly increased our ancestors’ success in obtaining food and surviving
danger. As a result, a strong desire to affiliate with others seems to be a basic characteristic of our species. Human
infants, for instance, are apparently born with the motivation and ability to seek contact with their interpersonal
world (Baldwin, 2000), and even newborns tend to look toward faces in preference to other stimuli (Mondloch et al.,
1999).
Also, from the perspective of evolutionary determinants, it would be expected that youth and beauty (physical
aspects of interpersonal attraction) would weigh heavily in the balance because these characteristics are associated
with reproductive potential: young people and ones we find attractive are generally healthier and more fit than older
people or ones who are not attractive, so both women and men might well be expected to prefer romantic partners
who show these characteristics. In general, that’s true, however existing evidence indicates that even today, these
qualities count more heavily for men than for women. For women, the tendency is to prefer mates who can take care
of them and their offspring.
* * *
Sources:
eBook)

What is the role of communication in group dynamics?
41
A12
Communication serves four major functions within a group:
1. Control: Communication acts to control member behavior in several ways. Formal guidelines and authority
hierarchies tell group members how to behave within the group. Informal communication, such as teasing or
harassing also serves to control group member behavior.
2. Motivation: Communication fosters motivation be clarifying to group members what is to be done, how well they
are doing, and what can be done to improve their performance within the group.
3. Emotional expression: The communication that takes place within the group is a fundamental mechanism by
which members show their frustrations and feelings of satisfaction. Communication, therefore, provides a release for
the emotional expression of feelings and for fulfillment of social needs.
4. Information: Communication provides the information that individuals and groups need to make decisions by
transmitting the data to identify and evaluate alternative choices.
* * *
Sources:
Organizational Behavior, Stephen P. Robbins (Click for eBook)

What is social identity theory of group formation?
42
A13
The individual difference approaches make the assumption that people’s behavior in group settings is essentially
similar to their behavior in all other situations. However, in group settings, people’s behavior is often qualitatively
different. This led Tajfel to suggest during the late 1970s that it is important to distinguish between interpersonal
behavior and intergroup behavior, where the former means acting as an individual with some idiosynchratic
characteristics and a unique set of personal relationships with others and the latter means acting as a group member.
Any social behavior falls somewhere along a continuum defined by these two extremes.
Social identity theory suggests that individuals seek to feel positively about the groups to which they belong, and part
of our self-esteem is derived from our social group memberships. By favorably comparing attributes of one’s own
groups with those of out-groups, this theory suggests that a person acquires both a positive sense of who he or she is
and a clear understanding of how he or she should act toward in-group and out-group members.
* * *
Sources:
Encyclopedia of Applied Psychology (Click for eBook)
eBook)

Discuss the ways in which prejudice is manifested.
43
A14
As an attitude, prejudice is the negative feelings experienced on the part of the prejudiced when they are in the
presence of, or merely think about, members of the groups they dislike (Brewer & Brown, 1998).
A person who is prejudiced toward some social group is predisposed to evaluate its members negatively because they
belong to that group. Whether prejudice will be expressed in overt discrimination or not will depend on the
perceived norms or acceptability of doing so (Crandall et al., 2002; Jetten, Spears, & Manstead, 1997).
Depending on what emotion underlies prejudice toward a particular group, the discriminatory actions that might be
expected could be rather different. A prejudice can be manifested in the following behaviors:
1. Withdrawal: moving away from the object of prejudice.
2. Avoidance: avoiding situations where interaction with object of prejudice may be required.
3. Discrimination: biased behaviour against the object of prejudice
4. Lynching: behaviour aimed at causing physical hurt or injury to the object of prejudice.
5. Extermination: aimed at removing the existence of the object person of prejudice.
* * *
Sources:
eBook)

What are the various forms of social conflict?
44
A15
Conflict is a process in which individuals or groups perceive that others have taken, or will soon take, actions
incompatible with their own interests (DeDreu, 2010). Classification of forms of social conflict follows:
By nature of conflict:
a. Overt and covert conflicts: When conflict is open and explicit, it is called overt conflict. When conflict exists but
results aren’t visible, it is called covert conflict. People may be unhappy but not say anything about it.
b. Objective and subjective conflict: Conflicts that are independent of the parties perceptions, typically for power or
scarce resources are known as objective. Conflicts that are dependent on parties’ perceptions are known as subjective.
By the shape it takes:
a. Social movement: Reaction to a strong sense of unjust suffering. Ex: Gandhi’s Namak Andolan
b. Riots and rebellions: When a crowd of people protest violently. Riots are uncontrolled whereas Rebellion is
organized.
c. Civil politics: Intent is to bring conflict into the political institution, to get people to work ‘inside’ the system instead of
‘outside’.
d. Revolution: Intent is to alter the society’s institutions and create a whole new social order based on a radically
different set of principles.
Sources:
http://www.netuni.nl/courses/conflict1/week1/1.6_week.html
Social Psychology, 12th Edition by Robert A. Baron, Nyla R. Branscombe, Donn R. Byrne, Gopa Bhardwaj (Click for eBook)
https://nationalvetcontent.edu.au/alfresco/d/d/workspace/SpacesStore/ca9e3215-8368-4bb7-9497-
769f750f7214/13_07/shared/resources/conflict.htm
http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/sociology/social-interaction/conflict-definition-characteristics-forms-and-other-
details-about-conflict/31270/ 10/19

How discrimination can be reduced?
45
A16
Under the right conditions, discrimination toward particular groups can be reduced. Various ways to reduce
discrimination are as follows:
1. Reducing prejudice itself: Techniques to reduce prejudice include:
a. Avoiding prejudiced behavior in children’s presence as they acquire prejudiced attitudes from significant others.
b. Contact Hypothesis: Increasing degree of contact between the different groups can reduce racial prejudice.
c. Recategorisation: Shifting the boundary between “us” and “them” to include former outgroups.
d. Emotional techniques: People with egalitarian standards feel guilty when they violate these beliefs and behave in a
prejudicial fashion.
e. Social Influence: Providing people evidence that their ingroup members like outgroup (prejudice target) members.
f. ‘Just say no’: Training individuals to say no to associations between stereotypes and specific social groups.
g. Education: Educate about groups (prejudice targets) or use methods like cultural assimilator.
h. Anti-prejudice propaganda: Using mass media tools such as films and documentaries.
i. Incongruent role: Person is made to play role contrary to his prejudice. Creates dissonance, thus reducing prejudice.
2. Social legislation: Governments in different countries have adopted and enacted several legislations which prohibit
public manifestation of discrimination. Ex: Equal opportunities in employment
* * *
Sources:
eBook)

What is the role of persuasive communication in attitude
change?
46
A17
Persuasion refers to efforts to change our attitudes through the use of various kinds of messages. Social psychologists
have derived various insights into the cognitive processes that play a role in persuasion (e.g., Petty et al.,2003;
Wegener & Carlston, 2005).
Factors affecting attitude change through persuasion are:
1. Source of the message (Person or institution):
a. Credibility – communicators seem to know what they are talking about, and appear to be unbiased
b. Attractiveness - physical attractiveness and similarity (Hovland & Weiss, 1951)
2. Content of the message:
a. Suggestion – uncritical acceptance of statement
b. Messages do not seem to be designed to change our attitudes are more successful (Walster & Festinger, 1962)
c. When fear appeal is moderate.
d. One-sided approach is more favorable with neutral or favorable audience, two sided approach is more favorable
with hostile audience
e. Use of primacy and recency effect
3. Receiver of the message:
a. Influenceability: ex: Children and uneducated adults have high tendency to get influenced
b. Selective attention and interpretation: role played by factors such as cognitive dissonance
c. Immunization: The impact of two sided messages.
Sources:
eBook)

How is attitude related to belief?
47
A18
The defining characteristic of attitudes Is that they express and evaluation of some object (Insko & Schopler, 1972;
Petty & Cacioppo, 1981). Evaluations are expressed by terms such as liking-disliking, pro-anti, favoring-not favoring,
and positive-negative. They are the feeling tone aroused by any attitude object. Attitudes can be formed about many
things – entities, people, or abstract concepts. Anything that arouses evaluative feelings qualifies as an object of
attitudes.
Beliefs are cognitions, or thoughts, about the characteristics of objects. They link objects to attributes (Fishbein &
Ajzen, 1975). Attitude is typically associated with a number of specific beliefs about an object. We have evaluative
feelings about beliefs, which contribute to our attitude.
For example, your friend may believe that certain politician has a sound economic policy, will work to lower taxes, will
help to prevent war, and so on. These beliefs will determine his attitude towards the politician – favorable or
unfavorable.
* * *
Sources:

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Advanced Social Psychology for IGNOU students

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