1. Ch 5 Sistem Kendali Industri
Oleh Mahros Darsin diterjemahkan dr bukunya Groover
Bagian:
1. Industri Proses vs. Industri Manufakturing Diskret
2. Kendali Continnyu vs. Diskret
3. Kendali Proses Komputer
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Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.

2. Definisi Kendali Industri
Aturan otomatis dari operasi unit dikaitkan dengan peralatan
sekaligus integrasi dan koordinasi unit operasi ke sistem
produksi yang lebih luas.
Unit operasi
Biasanya merujuk ke operasi manufaktur
Dan juga diaplikasikan ke material handling atau
perangkat lainnya.
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No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
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3. Industri Proses vs.
Industri Manufakturing Diskret
Industri proses
Operasi produksi dibuat terhadap sejumlah material
Materials: cairan, gas, powders, dll.
Industri Manufakturing Diskret
Operasi produksi dibuat terhadap sejumlah material
Unit: komponen atau produk
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4. Definisi: Variabel dan Parameter
Variabel – luaran proses
Parameter – masukan proses
Variabel dan parameter kontinyu – tidak akan terganggu
selama waktu proses
Juga dipertimbangkan sebagai analog – dapat diambil
sembarang nilai dalam rentang harga tertentu
Mereka tidak terbatas pada sebuah nilai diskret yg diset
Parameter dan variabel diskret – dapat hanya mengambil
nilai tertentu pada rentang yang diberikan
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5. Variabel dan Parameter Diskret
Kategori:
Binary – dapat memakai dua nilai, baik ON atau OFF
ataupun 1 atau 0, dll
Diskret lain dari binary – dapat memakai lebih dari dua nilai
tetapi bukan nilai tak terbatas
Data Pulsa/denyut – serangkaian pulsa yang dapat dihitung
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6. Variabel dan Parameter
Kontinyu dan Diskret
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7. Tipe Kontrol
Sebagaimana ada dua jenis variabel dan parameter pada
proses, maka ada dua jenis kendali:
Kendali kontinyuous - variabel dan parameter adalah
kontinyu dan analog
Kendali Diskret - variabel dan parameter adalah diskret,
umumnya diskret biner
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8. Kendali Kontinyu
Tujuan umumnya untuk menjaga nilai variabel luaran
pada level yang diinginkan.
Parameter dan variabe umumnya kontinyu.
Mirip seperti sistem kendali tertutup.
Kebanyakan proses industri kontinyu memiliki
umpan balik jamak.
Contoh proses kontinyu:
Kendali luaran reaksi kimia yang bergantung pada suhu,
tekanan, dll
Kendali posisi pahat relatif terhahadap benda kerja
pada mesin CNC.
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9. Tipe Kendali Proses Kontinyu
Regulatory control
Feedforward control
Steady-State optimization
Adaptive control
On-line search strategies
Teknik kendali lainnya:
Expert systems
Neural networks
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10. Regulatory Control (Kendali Regulatory)
Tujuan – menjaga kinerja proses pada level tertentu atau
dalam pita toleransi yang diberikan pada level tersebut.
Sesuai jika kinerja berhubungan dengan ukuran kualitas
Ukuran kinerja kadang-kadang dihitung berdasarkan pada
beberapa variabel luaran.
Ukuran kinerja disebut sebagai Index of performance (IP)
Masalah dengan kendali regulatory adalah selalu ada error
dalam rangka memulai aksi kendali.
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11. Regulatory Control
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12. Feedforward Control
Tujuan – mengantisipasi efek gangguan yang akan
Mengganggu proses dengan penyensoran dan
pengompensasian sebelum mempengarugi proses.
Model matematis menangkap efek gangguan terhadap
proses.
Kompensasi lengkap untuk gangguan adalah sulit
karena variasi, ketidakpresisian pada model matematis
dan ketidaktepatan dalam aksi kendali.
Biasanya dikobinasi dengan kendali regulatory
Kendali regulatory dan feedforward control lebih dekat
berhubungan dengan industri proses.
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13. Feedforward Control
Dikombinasi dengan Feedback Control
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14. Steady-State Optimization
Kelas teknik optimasi ketika proses menunjukkan
karakteristik sbb:
1. Index of performance (IP) yang terdefinisi dengan baik
2. Hubungan yang dikenal antara variabel proses dan IP
3. Nilai parameter sistem yang mengoptimasi IP dapat
ditentukan secara matematis.
Open-loop system
Optimization techniques termasuk kalkulus diferensial,
pemrograman matematika, dll.
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15. Steady State (Open-Loop)
Optimal Control
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16. Adaptive Control
Karena optimasi steady-state adalah open-loop, maka tidak
dapat mengompensasi gangguan.
Adaptive control adalah bentuk self-correcting dari kendali
optimal termasuk kendali umpan balik.
Mengukur variabel proses yang relevan selama operasi
(kendali umpan balik).
Menggunakan sebuah algoritma kendali yang mencoba
mengoptimasi beberapa index of performance (optimal
control)
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17. Adaptive Control beroperasi pada
Lingkungan Waktu Bervariasi
Lingkungan berubah terhadap waktu dan perubahan
berpotensi memengaruhi kinerja sistem.
Contoh: Pesawat Supersonic beroperasi secara berbeda
pada penerbangan subsonic daripada pada supersonic.
Jika algoritma kendali adalah tetap, sistem mungkin membentuk
sesuatu yang cukup berbeda pada lingkungan yang berlainan.
Sebuah sistem adaptive control dirancang untuk mengompensasi
atas lingkungan perubahan dengan mengubah beberapa
aspek algoritma kendalinya untuk mecapai kinerja yang optimal.
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No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
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18. Tiga Fungsi dalam Adaptive Control
1. Fungsi Identifikasi – nilai IP sekarang ditentukan
berdasarkan pada pengukuran proses variabel.
2. Fungsi Keputusan – putuskan apa perubahan yang harus
dibuat untuk meningkatkan kinerja sistem.
Ubah satu atau lebih parameter input
Ubah beberapa fungsi internal dari controller
3. Fungsi Modifikasi – menerapkan fungsi keputusan.
Berkonsentrasi dengan perubahan fisik (hardware
drpd software)
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No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
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19. Adaptive Control System
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20. Strategi Pencarian On-Line
Kelas khusus adaptive control ketika fungsi keputusan
tidak dapat didefinisikan secara efisien.
Hubungan antara parameter input IP tidak diketahui
atau tidak cukup dikenal untuk diimplementasikan
bentuk sebelumnya dari adaptive control.
Selainnya, eksperimen dibuat pada proses
Perubahan sistematik kecil dibuat pada parameter input
untuk mengamati efeknya.
Berdasar pada efek yang teramati, perubahan yang lebih
besar dibuat untuk menggerakkan ke arah kinerja optimal.
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No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
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21. Sistem Kendali Diskret
Parameter dan variabel proses keduanya diskret.
Parameter dan variabel proses diubah pada
discrete moments in time
Perubahan didefinisikan lebih lanjut sebagai program
Instruksi.
Perubahan dilaksanakan untuk salah satu alasan berikut:
1. Pernyataan sistem (system state) telah berubah
(perubahan dipicu event)
2. Sejumlah kecil waktu telah terhapus (perubahan dipicu
oleh waktu)
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22. Event-Driven Changes
Dilaksanakan oleh pengendali sebagai respon terhadap
beberapa event yang telah mengubah state of the system.
Contoh:
Sebuah robot memuat benda ke fixture, dan benda tsb
disensor dengan sebuah limit switch dalam fixture.
The diminishing level of plastic dalam hopper pada
mesin injection molding dipicu oleh „a low-level switch‟
yang membuka katup dan mengalirkan biji plastik baru
ke dalam hopper.
Penghitungan jumlah komponen yang lewat di atas
konveyor dengan sensor optis.
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No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
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23. Time-Driven Events
Dilaksanakan dengan pengendali baik pada poin waktu
maupun setelah penghapusan waktu tertentu.
Contoh:
Pabrik “shop clock” menyuarakan bel pada waktu kapan
menunjukkan mulai shift, mulai istirahat dan waktu henti
dan akhir shift.
Operasi perlakuan panas harus dilaksanakan selama
waktu tertentu.
Pada mesin cuci, siklus perputaran diatur beroperasi
dalam kurun waktu tertentu.
Sebaliknya, pengisisna bak mandi adalah dipicu oleh
Keadaan ketika isi bak mandi berkurang (event-driven)
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24. Dua tipe Kendali Diskret
1. Kombinasi kendali logika dan kendali eksekusi dari
perubahan event-driven.
Juga dikenal sebagai kendali logika.
Luaran pada keadaan sebarang tergantung atas nilai
masukan.
Parameter dan variabel = 0 or 1 (OFF or ON)
2. Kendali sekuensial – mengendalikan eksekusi waktu -
driven changes
Menggunakan perangkat pewaktu internal untuk
menentukan kapan memulai perubahan dalam variabel
Luaran.
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No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
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25. Computer Process Control
(Kendali Proses Komputer)
Bermula pada tahun 1950-an pada industri proses.
Mainframe computers – lambat, mahal, tidak handal
Set point control
Direct digital control (DDC) system diinstall pada 1962
Minicomputer diperkenalkan akhir 1960-an, microcomputer
diperkenalkan pada awal 1970-an.
Programmable logic controllers diperknalkan awal 1970-an
untuk kendali proses diskret.
Distributed control dimulai sekitar 1975
PCs untuk kendali proses awal 1990-an.
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26. Dua Persyaratan Dasar untuk
Real-Time Process Control
1. Interupsi Proses- terinisiasi
Pengendali harus merespon masukan sinyal dari
prosess (event-driven changes)
Bergantung apada prioritas relatif, pengendali mungkin
menginterupsi program saat ini untuk merespon.
2. Timer-initiated actions (Aksi ter-inisiasi pewaktu)
Pengendali harus dapat mengeksekusi aksi tertentu
pada titik-titik tertentu dalam waktu (time-driven change
Contoh: (1) scanning sensor values, (2) turning
switches on and off, (3) re-computing optimal
parameter values
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27. Persyaratan Kendali Komputer Lainnya
3. Perintah Computer untuk meproses
Untuk mengendalikan aktuator proses
4. System- and program-initiated events
System initiated events – komunikasi antara komputer
dan peripherals
Program initiated events – aksi terkait non-prosess
misalnya pencetakan berita.
5. Operator-initiated events –menerima masukan dari personnel
Contoh: emergency stop
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No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.

28. Kapabilitas Kendali Computer
Polling (data sampling)
Interlocks
Interrupt system
Exception handling
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No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
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29. Polling (Data Sampling)
Penyampelan data berkala untuk menengarai status proses.
Issues:
1. Polling frequency – interval waktu bolak-balik antara
sampel data.
2. Polling order – serangkaian titik tempat koleksi data
disample.
3. Polling format – prosedur penyampelan alternative:
All sensors di-polled setiap siklus
Update hanya data yang berubah pada diklus ini
High-level and low-level scanning
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No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
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30. Interlocks
Mekanisme perlindungan untuk pengoordinasian aktivitas
dua atau lebih perangkat dan pencegahan satu perangkat
dari memengaruhi perangkat lainnya.
1. Input interlocks – signal dari perangkat eksternal dikirim ke
controller; fungsi yang mungkin:
Melaksanakan program siklus kerja
Menyela eksekusi program siklus kerja
2. Output interlocks – signal dikirim dari pengendali ke
perangkat external.
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No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.

31. Interrupt System
Fitur kendali komputer yang mengjinkan pengeksekusian
program saat ini supaya ditunda sehingga program lain
dapat dijalankan sebagai respon atas sinyal masukan yang
mengindikasikan event yang lebih prioritas.
Internal interrupt – dibangkitkan oleh komputer itu sendiri
Contoh: timer-initiated events, polling, system-
and program initiated interrupts
External interrupts – dibangkitkan ekternal ke komputer
Contoh: process-initiated interrupts, operator inputs
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32. Interrupt Systems:
(a) Single-Level and (b) Multilevel
(a)
(b)
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33. Exception Handling
Pengecualian adalah kejadian keluar dari keadaan normal
atau operasi yang diinginkan dari sistem kendali proses.
Contoh pengecualian:
Product quality problem
Variable proses di luar jangkauan operasi normal
Kekurangan bahan baku
Kondisi berbahaya misalnya api
Ketidakfungsian pengendali
Exception handling adalah bentuk pendeteksian kesalahan
dan perbaikan.
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No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.

34. Bentuk-bentuk Kendali Proses Komputer
1. Computer process monitoring
2. Direct digital control (DDC)
3. Numerical control and robotics
4. Programmable logic control
5. Supervisory control
6. Distributed control systems and personal computers
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No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.

35. Computer Process Monitoring
Komputer mengamati proses dan peralatan yang berhubungan,
mengumpulkan dan merekam data dari operasi.
Komputer tidak mengendalikan proses secara langsung.
Tipe data yang dikoleksi:
Data proses – variabel parameter input and output
Data perangkat – utilisasi mesin, penjadwalan
penggantian pahat, diagnosis ketidakfungsian.
Data Produk – untuk memenuhi persyaratan pemerintah
mis. farmasi dan medikal.
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Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.

36. (a) Process Monitoring, (b) Open-Loop
Control, and (c) Closed-Loop Control
(a)
(b)
(c)
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37. Direct Digital Control (DDC)
Adalah bentuk kendali proses komputer dengan komponen
tertentu dalam sistem kendali analog konvensional diganti
dengan komputer digital.
Circa: tahun 1960-an mengguanakn mainframes
Aplikasi: industri proses
Dikerjakan pada time-shared, basis data sampel daripada
secara kontinyu dengan komponen terdidikai/resmi.
Komponen tetap dalam DDC: sensor dan aktuator.
Komponen diganti dalam DDC: kendali analog,
perekaman dan instrumen display, set point dials.
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38. Loo Kendali Analog pada Umumnya
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39. Komponen dari
Direct Digital Control System
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist.
No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.

40. DDC (lanjutan)
Pada mulanya dipandang sebagai sebuah alat yang lebih
efisien dengan fungsi yang sama seperti kendali analog.
Kesempatan berikutnya menjadi lebih nyata akan guna DDC:
Lebih banyak opsi kendali daripada kendali analog (PID
control), mis. penggabungan antara kendali diskret dan
kontinyu.
Integrasi dan optimasi loop jamak.
Editing program kendali.
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist.
No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.

41. Numerical Control and Robotics
Computer numerical control (CNC) – komputer memerintah
mesin perkakas melalui serangkaian langkah pemrosesan
yang didefinisikan oleh program instruksi.
Tampilan yang menonjol pada NC – kendali posisi pahat
terhadap objek yang diproses.
Penghitungan diperlukan untuk menentukan trayektori
pahat.
Industrial robotics – manipulator joints dikendalikan untuk
menggerakkan dan orientasi ujung lengan mencapai posisi
pada siklus kerja.
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist.
No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.

42. Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)
Pengendali berbasi microprocessor yang mengeksekusi program
instruksi untuk mengimplemenasi logika, urutan, perhitungan,
dan fungsi aritmetik untuk mengendalikan mesin industri dan
proses.
Diperkenalkan sekitar tahun 1970-an untuk mengganti
pengendali rele elektromekanis pada manaufakturing produk
diskret.
PLC saat ini untuk kendali diskret dan kontinyu baik pada
industri proses maupun industri produk diskret.
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist.
No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.

43. Supervisory Control
Pada industri proses, kendali supervisory menunjukkan sebuah
sistem kendali yang mengatur aktivitas sejumlah unit
operasi terintegrasi untuk mencapai tujuan ekonomi
tertentu.
Pada manufakturing diskret, kendali supervisori adalah sistem
kendali yang memerintahkan dan menkoordinasi aktivitas
beberapa buah perangkat antarmuka pada sebuah sistem
manufakturing.
Fungsi: penjadwalan produksi efisien, pelacakan umur
pahat, optimasi operasi parameter.
Lebih dekat diasosiasikan dengan industri proses.
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist.
No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.

44. Supervisory Control Superimposed on
Process Level Control System
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist.
No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.

45. Distributed Control Systems (DCS)
Multiple microcomputers dihubungjan bersama untuk berbagi
dan mendistribusi beban kerja kendali proses.
Tampilan:
Stasiun kendali proses jamak untuk mengendalikan loop
individual dan perangkatnya.
Ruang kendali pusat tempat kendali supervisi dikerjakan.
Stasiun operator lokal untuk kelebihan.
Jaringan komunikasi (jalur data).
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist.
No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.

46. Distributed Control System
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist.
No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.

47. Keuntungan DCS
Dapat diisntstal pada kenfigurasi yang sangat mendasar,
kemudian dikembangkan dan dipertinggi sesuai kebutuhan m
Multiple computers memfasilitasi parallel multitasking.
Redundancy akibat multiple computers
Kabel kendali berkurang dibanding konfigurasi pengendali
terpusat.
Jaringan menyediakan informasi proses seluruh pabrik
sehingga pabrik dan manajemen proses lebih efisien.
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist.
No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.

48. PC pada Kendali Proses
Dua kategori aplikasi PC pada kendali proses:
1. Operator interface – PC diintegrasikan ke satu atau lebih
PLC dan perangkat lainnya yang mengendalikan proses
secara langsung.
PC melakukan fungsi pemantauan dan pengawasan
tertentu, namun tidak mengendalikan proses scr langsu
2. Direct control – PC diintegrasikan langsung ke proses dan
mengendalikan operasinya secara real time.
Pemikiran tradisional adalah inilah beresiko.
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist.
No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.

49. Enablers of PCs for Direct Control
Pekerja umumnya sudah terbiasa dengan PCs.
Ketersediaan Pc dengan kinerja tinggi.
Kecepatan siklus PC saat ini melebihi kecepatan PLC.
Filosofi arsitek terbuka dalam perancangan sistem kendali.
Vendor Hardware dan software mengikuti standar yang
memungkinkan produk mereka dapat diantaroperasikan
(interoperable).
Sistem operasi PC yang memfasilitasi kendali real-time
dan jaringan.
Keterbukaan PC untuk level industri.
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist.
No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.

50. Enterprise-Wide
Integrasi Data Pabrik
Para manager punya akses langsung ke operasi pabrik.
Para perencana punya data terkini tentang waktu produksi
dan tarif untuk tujuan penjadwalan.
Personel penjualan dapat menyediakan tanggal pengiriman
realistis, berdasar pada beban kerja terkini di pabrik.
Pelacak pemesanan dapat menyediakan status informasi
terkini untuk menanyai pelanggan.
QC dapat mengakses isu mutu dari pesanan sebelumnya.
Accounting mempunyai data ongkos produksi terkini.
Personel produksi dapat mengakses data perancangan
produk untuk menjelaskan kekaburan.
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist.
No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.

51. Enterprise-Wide PC-based
Distributed Control System
©2008 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved. This material is protected under all copyright laws as they currently exist.
No portion of this material may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher. For the exclusive use of adopters of the book
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition, by Mikell P. Groover.