1. ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH

2. A. Meaning of Ethnographic Research B. Methodology of Ethnographic Research C. Types of Ethnographic Designs D. Key Characteristics of an Ethnographic Design

3. MEANING OF ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH Ethnography is the in-depth study of naturally occurring behavior within a culture or social group. It seeks to understand the relationship between culture and behavior; with culture referring to the beliefs, values, and attitudes of a specific group of people. The ethnographic research method was developed by anthropologists as a way of studying and describing human cultures. Anthropologists immerse themselves in the lives of the people they study, using primarily extended observation and occasionally in-depth interviewing to gain clarification and more detailed information.

4. The ethnographer undertakes the study without any priori hypotheses to avoid predetermining what is observed or what information is elicited from informants. The ethnographer explores and tests hypotheses, but the hypotheses evolve out of the fieldwork itself. Ethnographer refer to the people from whom they gather information as informants rather than participants, and they study sites rather than individuals. The term ethnography is used to refer to both the work of studying a culture and also the end product of the research.

5. Spindler and Hammond (2000) describe some of the characteristics of good ethnography: (1) extended participant observation; (2) long time at the site; (3) collection of large volumes of materials such as notes, artifacts, audio, and videotapes; and (4) openness, which means having no specific hypotheses or even highly specific categories of observation at the start of the study

6. As in any studies, a variety of data collection techniques may be used as part of the ethnographic study. Common means of collecting data include interviewing, document analysis, participant observations, research diaries, and life stories. It is not the data collection techniques that determine whether the study is ethnography but rather the “socio-cultural interpretation that sets apart from other forms of qualitative inquiry. Ethnography is not defined by how data are collected, but by the lens through which the data are interpreted (Merriam & Associated, 2002)

7. Ethnographic Designs are qualitative research procedures for describing, analyzing, and interpreting a culture-sharing group’s shared patterns of behavior, beliefs, and language that develop over time. To understand the patterns of a culture-sharing group, the ethnographer typically spends considerable time in the field interviewing, observing, and gathering documents about the group in order to understand their culture-sharing behaviors, beliefs, and language.

8. Spradley (1980) identified the sequence of steps making up the methodology of ethnographic research: Selecting an Ethnographic Project. The scope of these projects can vary greatly, from studying a whole complex society to a single social situation or institution. The beginner would be wise to restrict the scope of his or her project to a single social situation so that it can be completed in a reasonable time. A social situation always has three components: a place, actors, and activities.

9. 2.Asking Ethnographic Questions. The researcher needs to have questions in mind that will guide what he or she sees and hears and the collection of data. Collecting Ethnographic Data. The researcher does fieldwork to find out the activities of the people, the physical characteristics of the situation, and what it feels like to be part of the situation. This step generally begins with an overview comprising broad descriptive observations. Then, after looking at the data, you move on to more focused observations. Here you use participant observation, in-depth interviews, and so on to gather data.

10. Making an Ethnographic Record. This step includes taking field notes and photographs, making maps, and using any other appropriate means to record the observations. Analyzing Ethnographic Data. The fieldwork is always followed by data analysis, which leads to new questions and new hypotheses, more data collection, and field notes, and more analysis. The cycle continues until the project is completed. 6.Writing the Ethnography. The ethnography should be written so that the culture or group is brought to life, making readers feel they understand the people and their way of life. The ethnographic report can range in length from several pages to a volume or two. You can greatly simplify this task by beginning the writing early as data accumulate instead waiting until the end. The writing task will also be easier if, before writing, you read other well-written ethnographies.

11. TYPES OF ETHNOGRAPHIC DESIGNS Realist Ethnographies Realist ethnography is a popular approach used by cultural anthropologists. It is an objective account of the situation, typically written in the third person point of view, reporting objectively on the information learned from participants at a field site.

14. Critical Ethnographies Ethnography now incorporates a “ critical approach” (Carspecken, 1995; Carspecken & Apple, 1992; Thomas, 1993) to include an advocacy perspective to ethnography. Critical ethnographies are a type of ethnographic research in which the author is interested in advocating for the emancipation of groups marginalized in our society (Thomas, 1993). Critical researchers are typically politically minded individuals who seek , through research, to advocate against inequality and domination (Carspecken & Apple, 1992).

16. Critical ethnographers speak to an audience on behalf of their participants as a means of empowering participants by giving them more authority.

17. Critical ethnographers seek to change the society.

18. Critical ethnographers identify and celebrate their biases in research. The y recognize that all research is value laden.

19. Critical ethnographers challenge the status quo and ask why it is so.

20. Critical researchers seek to connect the meaning of a situation to broader structures of social power and control.

22. A Culture-Sharing Group

23. Shared patterns of behavior, belief , and language

24. Fieldwork

25. Description, themes, and interpretation

26. Context or Setting

28. A Culture-Sharing Group In the study of a group, ethnographers identify a single site (elementary classroom), locate a group within it (reading group), and gather data about the group (observe a reading period). This distinguishes ethnography from other forms of qualitative research that focus on individuals rather than groups of people. A culture-sharing group in ethnography is two or more individuals who have shared behaviors, beliefs, and language.

30. A belief in ethnography is how an individual thinks about or perceives things in a cultural setting.

33. Etic Datais information representing the ethnographers' interpretation of the participants’ perspectives. Etic typically refers to second-order concepts, such as the language used by the social scientist or educator, to refer to the same phenomena mentioned by the participants (Schwandt, 2001)_

35. Context or Setting Ethnographer present the description, themes, and Interpretation within the context or setting of the culture- Sharing group. The context for ethnography is the setting, Situation, or environment that surrounds the cultural group Being studied. It is multilayered and interrelated, consisting Of such factors as history, religion, politics, economy, and the Environment (Fetterman, 1998)

36. Researcher Reflexivity Ethnographic researchers make interpretations and write their report reflexively. Reflexivity in ethnography refers to the researcher being aware of and openly discussing his or her role in the study in a way that honors and respects the site and participants.