climatic impact on freshwater resources of pakistan

IMPACT OF CLIMATIC CHANGE ON FRESHWATER
RESOURCES OF PAKISTAN
BY KIRAN AFTAB KHOKHAR
SUBMITTED TO: DR. AMINA ZUBERI
FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE LAB

INTRODUCTION
 Global warming is a gradual increase in the overall temperature of the earth's
atmosphere generally attributed to the greenhouse affect - a natural process that
warms the Earth’s surface.
 When the Sun’s energy reaches the Earth’s atmosphere, some of it is reflected back
to space and the rest is absorbed and re-radiated by greenhouse gases.
 Greenhouse gases include water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide,
ozone and some artificial chemicals such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).

 The continuous increase in emission of greenhouse gasses has resulted in global
warming, and substantial changes in the future climate are expected by the end of the
current century.
 Global average temperatures have been rising, and human activities have changed the
composition of the atmosphere significantly enough that we can now confidently say
that the climate will continue to change.
 According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the average
temperature of the earth increased by 0.6 ° C over the last century and it is expected
to further increase by 1.4 to 5.8 º C by the end of the current century.
 In Pakistan ,a rise in mean temperature of 0.6-1°C in the coastal areas along with a
0.5 to 0.7% increase in solar radiation over southern half of country has been
observed.

 In the year 2010, Mohenjo-Daro, a city in Sindh faced the temperature of 53.5 °C ,the
hottest temperature ever recorded in Asia and the fourth highest temperature ever
recorded in the world.
 Along with global warming, there will also be changes in:
1. atmospheric and oceanic circulation,
2. and in the hydrologic cycle, leading to large increases in frequency and intensity of
extreme climate events such as:
 floods, droughts and cyclones;
 rapid melting of world’s glaciers and ice sheets including the polar ice;
 rise in average sea level causing submersion of small islands and other low lying
coastal areas etc.

 Particularly there will be great adverse impacts of climate change on
developing countries like Pakistan whose water and food security could be
threatened by the climate change.
 It is important to note that some levels of GHGs are necessary to maintain
temperatures needed to sustain human and animal life.
 The average mean temperature of the earth is 15°C, without greenhouse
gases it would be at -18 º C, a temperature which is unsuitable for overall
life.
 On a global scale Pakistan ranks 135th in per capita GHG emissions i.e.
0.8-1% , not yet considered alarming.

FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR GLOBAL
WARMING IN PAKISTAN
 The human activities like burning of fossil
fuels, excessive smoke discharges from
factories and Deforestation (produces about
24% of global greenhouse gas emissions) have
led to an increase in the concentration of the
greenhouse gases, mainly carbon dioxide,
methane and nitrous oxide, in the earth’s outer
atmosphere.
 In 2008 Pakistan’s total GHG emissions were
310 million tons of CO2 equivalent.
CO2
54%
CH4
36%
N2O
9%
CO
0.9%
NON-
METHANE
0.3%

1. The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in
Pakistan, it accounts for nearly 51% of these emissions
2. the agriculture sector (39%)
3. industrial processes (6%)
4. forestry (3%) emissions
5. waste (1%)
 (Source: National GHG inventory 2008).

WATER RESOURCES OF PAKISTAN
 The surface water hydrology of Pakistan is dominated by the Indus River and its
five major tributaries; Kabul, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi and Sutlej.
 The Indus River system resembles a funnel with a number of water resources at the
top converging into a single river that flows into the Arabian Sea.
 Under the 1960 Indus Basin Treaty between India and Pakistan, Pakistan is entitled
to the flow of three western rivers (Indus, Jhelum and Chenab) with occasional
spills from the eastern rivers Sutlej and Ravi diverted up stream by India.
 The flow of rivers under Pakistan control mainly depends upon snow and glacier
melt except Jhelum River, which also receives rainwater under monsoon system
during summer.

 The rainfall in Pakistan is low as half of the country receives less than 200 mm of
annual rainfall.
 The groundwater aquifers of the Indus Plains are the second major source of
freshwater and mainly recharge by the precipitation, the river flows, and the
seepage from different watercourses.
 Pakistan is basically an agrarian country with a population of 160 million
dependent upon the irrigated agriculture in the Indus Plains.
 This is served through the world’s largest contiguous irrigation system in the
Indus Basin developed over the last 150 years or so.
 The Indus Basin provides habitat to 25 amphibians and 147 fish species, and 22
species are endemic to this particular region.

KEY VULNERABILITIES OF PAKISTAN’S WATER
RESOURCES
 According to the IPCC Paper on Climate Change and Water, Asia is the region where
water distribution is uneven and large areas are under water stress.
 Decreasing trends in annual mean rainfall were observed in Russia, North China etc.
along with arid plains in Pakistan.
 In addition, inter– seasonal, inter-annual and spatial variability in rainfall has also
observed during the past few decades across Asia.
 Similarly, water shortages in Pakistan, India, Nepal and Bangladesh have attributed to
issues such as rapid urbanization and industrialization, population growth and
inefficient water use that are aggravated by changing climate.

 Pakistan is extremely short of freshwater resources.
 With a continuously increasing population and CC, the water availability
that was about 5,650 meters/per person/year in 1951, has decreased to as
low as 1,100 cubic meters/per person/year in 2010 (World Bank, 2006).
 This has placed the country in the comity of nations which are identified as
being ‘water scarce’.
 Projections say that under the existing circumstances it will further be
lowered to 800 cubic meters / per person / year by 2026.

 Pakistan is included among those countries where significant reduction of annual
fish catch has occurred as a result of climate and pollution .
 In particular, frequent floods in lower riparian areas (A riparian zone or riparian
area is the interface between land and a river or stream) deteriorates the fisheries
resources and economy of the fishing community.
 The northern and northwestern areas of Pakistan are more vulnerable to climate
change, having fragile ecosystems and delicate food web linkages.
 The Indus Blind Dolphin, migratory birds, freshwater turtles, Palla, Masher and
mangrove forests have been already affected.
 The habitat destruction due to climatic change is another threat to biodiversity.

 Temperature has direct effects on the physiology of organisms. e.g. the sex
of developing embryo of turtle and alligator depends on environmental
temperature.
 Temperature and rainfall play major roles in determining where individual
species of plants and animals can live, grow and reproduce.
 Already, reduced discharge of Indus River has significantly reduced
mangrove forest and its associated wildlife.
CHANGES EXPECTED DUE TO CLIMATE CHANGE INCLUDE:
1. Changes in forest cover
2. shifts of vegetation zones or biomes.

4. shifts in ranges of species and species composition
5. shift of species towards higher altitude
6. changes in geographic distributions of plant and animal species
7. changes in reproduction timings and the length of growing seasons for
plant
8. Precipitation also has direct effect on species abundance and distribution.
9. shift in habitat from monsoon forest to savannah grass land .
10.This situation will create the extinction of many endemic plant and animal
species.
11. The process of desertification may further extend towards croplands.

CLIMATIC
CHANGE
DEGLACIATION
FLOOD
GLOFs
DROUGHTS
CYCLONES
SEA WATER INTRUSION
SEDIMENTATION
SHRINKING WETLANDS
GROUNDWATER DEPLETION
WATER LOGGING & SALINITY
INCRESED WATER DEMAND

1. DEGLACIATION
 The 20th century has witnessed glacial fluctuations on a global scale.
This has been a period of dramatic glacier retreat in almost all alpine
regions of the globe.
 Himalayan glaciers are retreating at a faster rate in contrast to the
glaciers from other mountain regions affecting the flows of rivers of the
Indus Basin.
ADVERSE IMPACTS OF GLOBAL WARMING

 HIMALAYAN GLACIERS’ RETREAT
 International Commission for Snow and Ice (ICSI) reported in 1999 that: “Glaciers
in the Himalayas are receding faster than in any other part of the world and, if the
present rate continues, the likelihood of them disappearing by the year 2035 is very
high.”
HIMALAYAN GLACIERS SHRINKING

 According to the assessment in 2006, 67% of glaciers were found retreating
at a starling rate in the Himalayas and the major causal factor was identified
as climate change.
 A remarkably rapid recession has been reported in the case of 30 kilometer
long Gangotri glacier in the Eastern Himalayas. It is reported to have
retreated by about 2 km over the last 200 years, of which about 850 meters
has been in recent 20 years.
 Studies have shown that between 1970 and 1989, most glaciers in the
Everest region of the Himalaya had retreated 30-60m.

IMPACTS OF DEGLACIATION ON
HIMALAYAN REGION
 Pakistan’s Northern Areas are home to 5,218 glaciers and 2,420 glacial lakes, of which,
more than 50 glaciers have potentially been categorized as dangerous.
 Glacier melt in the Himalayas is projected to increase flooding and affect water resources
within next two to three decades.
 This will be followed by decreased river flows as the glaciers recede.
 According to the World Bank Report, 2005, “Pakistan’s Water Economy: Running Dry”.
 Western Himalayan glaciers will retreat for next 50 years causing increase in Indus River
flows.

 Then the glacier reservoirs will be empty, resulting in terrifying decrease of 30%
to 40% in flow of Indus River over the century.
 As a result of glacier melting, Upper Indus will show initial increase between
+14% and +90% in mean flows over the first few decades of the next 100 years,
to be followed by flows decreasing between -30% and -90% of the baseline by
the end of this century.
 The amount of water in Indus River has decreased from 185,000 million m3 per
year to 12300 million m3 per year in 1990 (Iftikhar, 2002).
 Food and crop production in Pakistan depends up to 90 % on irrigation and water
resources.

 RECENT CONFLICTING REPORTS ABOUT RECESSION OF
KARAKORAM GLACIERS
 In ƒ2005, Hewitt reported widespread evidence of glacier expansion in the late
1990s in the Central Karakoram, in contrast to a worldwide decline of
mountain glaciers.
 Based on surveys between 1997 and 2002, he reported that some of the large
Karakoram glaciers - 40 to 70 km in length - exhibited 5 to 15 m of thickening
over substantial ablation zone areas, locally more than 20 m.
 These conflicting findings make the impact of climate change on Karakoram
glaciers and Indus River flows very uncertain.

2. FLOODS
 Floods are one of the major natural calamities in Pakistan. These are mainly
caused by heavy concentrated rainfall over the upper catchments of the main
rivers.
 Monsoon currents originating in the Bay of Bengal and resultant depressions
often cause heavy downpour in the Himalayan foothills.
 These are additionally affected by weather systems from the Arabian Sea (by
seasonal lows) and from the Mediterranean Sea (through westerly waves) which
occasionally produce destructive floods in one or more of the main rivers of the
Indus River System.

 Analysis of past 50 years flood data for Pakistan shows that the number of
events has considerably increased during the last three decades.
 During the last 60 years, Pakistan has suffered a cumulative financial loss of
more than Rs.385 billion and the loss of more than 7,800 people as a result of
16 major floods.
 Now there is a growing consensus that the impacts of climate change may
well lead to an increase in both the frequency and magnitude of floods.
 This requires careful policy planning and formulation of strategies to combat
and minimize the destruction which they cause.

CLIMATE CRISES: GLACIER MELT
CAUSING FLOODS

 ADAPTIVE MEASURES
 Increased water storage capacity will be required to store water during the high flood
periods so that the same could be used during low flow periods or during drought
years.
 Currently, Pakistan has very little storage capacity i.e. only 150 cubic meters per
capita as compared to 2200, 5000 and 6000 cubic meter per capita in China, Australia
and United States respectively.
 The reservoir capacity in Pakistan is also very low, it corresponds to only 9% of such
flows, as compared to 30% of the average annual rivers flow in the neighboring
country, India (State Bank of Pakistan, 2003-04).

3. GLACIAL LAKE OUTBURST FLOOD (GLOF)
 Glaciers movement is the major cause of abrading bedrock and valley sites.
 Advancing glaciers take lot of debris with them.
 They leave all their debris on retreat forming lakes surrounded by the moraines
banks (a mass of rocks and sediment carried down and deposited by a glacier).
 Such lakes start filling with the melting ice as long as the moraine walls can hold
the water pressure.
 With rapid melting of glaciers, glacier lakes level can rise over the banks formed of
moraines can give way, leading to the catastrophic events known as Glacier Lake
Outburst Flood (GLOF).

 In Pakistan, 2420 glacial lakes are identified in the HKH (Hindukush- Karakoram–
Himalaya) region covering a total area of almost 126 Sq. Km.
 Among these identified glacial lakes 52 are declared as potentially dangerous
glacial lakes.
 These potentially dangerous lakes can burst anytime and cause flash floods and are
continuous risk to the downstream livelihood as well as hydro-power generation
plants.
 Recently glacier ‘Azghor’ had burst in Chitral district’s Golain region.
 The outburst was followed by a huge flood hitting the adjacent villages.

 International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Country Manager
Mahmood Akhtar Cheema said that the situation is quite alarming, as the
temperatures of most of the mountainous regions cross 40 degrees Celsius
in the summer season.
ADAPTIVE MEASURES
 There does not appear any specific coping mechanism against GLOF
except the development of an effective monitoring and early warning
system to forewarn the downstream dwellers of any imminent dangers of
GLOFs.

GLACIAL LAKE OUTBURST FLOOD (GLOF)
IN CHITRAL

4. DROUGHTS
 When there is marked depletion of surface water causing very low stream
flow and drying of lakes, reservoirs and rivers, it is called a hydrological
drought.
 This occurs on the local, regional or subcontinental scale which spreads in
horizontal direction. In this spatial distribution, drought can last from a few
weeks during a season with intermediate breaks of spells of good rains, to
several years in succession.
 Droughts are due to the low precipitation over a specified period.
 Concurrently, groundwater and river discharges slow down.

 Semi-Arid areas having less than 500mm of annual rainfall host droughts as
permanent climatic condition.
 Droughts also occur even in high rainfall condition. For example, in South Asia
many rivers, lakes and underground aquifers are fed by monsoon precipitation
which follows non-uniform spatial and temporal distribution pattern over the
region.
 Pakistan is an arid country receiving low rainfall and higher solar radiation over
most parts of the country.
 Total land area of Pakistan is 88 million hectares. About 59 % of the total area is
classified as rangelands.
 Most of this area receives less than 200mm rainfall annually.

 Pakistan experienced the serious drought situations from 1998-2002 facing
adverse freshwater dearth.
 Droughts severely affected the parts within and outside Indus Basin making
the provinces of Punjab, Sindh and Baluchistan most vulnerable.
 Out of sixteen districts in the Sindh Province, eight were affected by drought
during the period with four districts being severely affected.
 The frequency and intensity of droughts are expected to increase with
increase in global warming.
 In order to cope with this situation a two pronged approach is required.

1. The reservoir capacity needs to be
increased considerably in order to store
water during high flow periods and use this
water during the drought periods within the
same year or in subsequent drought year.
2. Equally important for an arid country like
Pakistan, is to reduce its water losses
through seepages from canals and water
channels etc. and to use the limited
available water in a highly efficient
manner.
DROUGHT AREAS IN SINDH, BALOCHISTAN

5. INCREASING FREQUENCY OF CYCLONES
 In meteorology, a cyclone is a large scale air mass that rotates around a strong center
of low atmospheric pressure.
 Cyclones are characterized by inward spiraling winds that rotate about a zone of low
pressure
 Tropical cyclones are also a dreaded characteristic of the climate in various parts of
Pakistan.
 As a result of global warming, the frequency of Cyclones has increased over the
Arabian Sea during the last 50 years.
 Moreover, the intensity of these cyclones has also increased during the last quarter
of the 20th century.

CYCLONE YEMYIN HIT THE COASTALAREAS
OF PAKISTAN

 Strong tropical activity in the Arabian sea in 2001, 2004, 2007,
2010 and 2011 shows an increasing trend towards more cyclones,
indicating that there are bright chances that future cyclones can
directly strike mega metropolis cities like Karachi and kill
thousands of people and may change the way these cities used to
live.

6. SEA WATER INTRUSION
 According to IPCC Report, 2007, the greatest increase in vulnerability is
expected to lie on the coastal strips of South and South East Asia.
 In Pakistan there is 1050 km long coastline spread along the provinces of
Sindh and Balochistan.
 In Sindh province mangroves are found in the Indus Delta and have an area of
about 600,000 ha.
 In Balochistan province, the mangroves’ total area is estimated to be 7,340 ha.
 These mangroves provide food and shelter during larval stage of the life cycle
for some 80% of the commercial species caught from water and provide
growing places for shrimps.

 Nearly 95% of the mangroves located in the Indus River Delta are of the
species Avicennia marina.
 Indus Delta surrounds 17 major creeks, many minor creeks (minor tributary) and
mudflats (mud flats, also known as tidal flats, are coastal wetlands that form in
intertidal areas where sediments have been deposited by tides or rivers).
 Indus delta mangroves (a tree or shrub which grows in tidal, chiefly tropical, coastal
swamps, having numerous tangled roots that grow above ground and form dense
thickets) are the largest arid climate mangroves in the world.
 Sindh Forest Department has under its control an area of 345,000 ha of the Indus
Delta as a protected forest.
 However, recent studies show that the area has shrunk to 160,000 from 205,000
hectares (www.wwfpak.org).

 The survival of these mangroves is highly dependent on perpetual freshwater from the
River Indus.
 Currently, the Indus Delta faces major threats due to inadequate fresh water flows.
 Another major threat is the sea level rise, which could significantly contribute to losses
of coastal wetlands and mangroves.
 Other natural resources degradation is evident in downstream Kotri Barrage especially in
the Deltaic Region.
 Due to the low flows of freshwater downstream Kotri the seawater intrudes, finding no
resistance, deteriorating the agriculture belts and coastal wetlands.
 This seawater intrusion is also caused by sea level rise, a worldwide Climate Change
related phenomenon.

 According to Institute of Oceanography, Pakistan, the sea level at Pakistan’s
coastline shows an increasing trend of 1.1 mm/year, i.e. within global average
range of 1.7±0.5 mm/year for the 20th century.
 The Indus delta also runs dry for several months in the Rabi season (October –
March) each year.
 The surplus water is available only between 70-100 days during the flood season
(June-September).
 There is a pressing need for building additional reservoirs for 25 million acre feet
per year of surplus water going to the sea which could be partly used to regulate
the release of 10 MAF/year of water downstream Kotri.

7. SEDIMENTATION AND LOSS OF RESERVOIR CAPACITY
 Glaciers and snow melting are associated with the soil erosion and sediment
transport.
 This erosion is rapid in the areas where the ice flows at high velocity.
 Sediments are eroded and join glaciers by several processes.
 Pakistan, situated in arid and semi-arid zone, is suffering the soil erosion
problems.
 This erosion, caused by ice melt and decrease in natural vegetation due to
deforestation, deposits heavy sediments in the dams and reservoirs downstream.
 Indus river catchment above Tarbela reservoir is particularly subject to heavy
weathering under severe climatic conditions resulting in sediment deposition.

 Indus river overall carries about 0.35 MAF of sediment load annually, almost
60% of which deposits in the reservoirs, canals, and irrigation fields.
 Sedimentation reduces storage capacity of reservoir.

 The most economical method is construction of a series of dams on the river
to trap the sediment in upstream reservoirs.
 An extensive watershed management program had been undertaken by
WAPDA in the catchments of Mangla and Tarbela Dams, which encompassed
forestation and sediment traps construction to reduce the silt deposition in
these reservoirs.
 There are also some other proposed/under construction dams that will
improve the storage capacity of the country.

LOSS OF RESERVOIR CAPACITY DUE TO SILTATION

8. SHRINKING WETLANDS
 In Pakistan, 19 sites are declared as of international importance called Ramsar
sites covering an area of almost 1,343,627 hectares and are under threat due to
the projected changes in climate.
 Predictions of a warmer climate and changes in precipitation patterns would
strongly affect wetland ecological functions through changes in hydrology,
biogeochemistry and biomass accumulation.
 According to the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, Species ranges are likely to
shrink by 2050.
 About one fifth to one third of the species may be committed to extinction by
that time with those risks increasing for the second half of the century.

 In Pakistan, from the high Himalayas to the Indus delta, all wetlands are badly
affected by the climate change (floods, drought, unusual rains) and human
management.
 These wetlands are highly productive ecosystems and life lines in the economy of
local people.
 Natural threats to wetlands include droughts and floods.
 Even though wetlands are sponge-like and can hold water in reserve for a long
time, but they cannot do it everlastingly.

 Some wetlands will eventually dry out if they are not replenished.
 Human activity is probably the most prevalent cause of wetland land
destruction or degradation.
 Pakistan had produced a Wetlands Action Plan in 2000, the lack of a
comprehensive Wetlands Management Strategy hindered policy formation,
coordination and management of wetlands at a national scale.

9. GROUNDWATER DEPLETION
 After the surface water the groundwater is the major source of freshwater in
Pakistan.
 The vast aquifer of freshwater underlying the Indus Plains, mainly recharge by:
1. the precipitation,
2. the river flows,
3. the seepage from the canal systems,
4. distributaries,
5. Watercourses.
 The total potential recharge in the useable groundwater areas in the Canal
Commands and the riverine areas is estimated as 66.8 MAF.

Orange and yellow
indicates areas
where groundwater
might be depleted,
while blue and
green highlights
areas where
groundwater is
being replenished.

 Groundwater in the Indus Basin aquifer is neither unlimited nor permanent and
has to be recharged.
 This aquifer with a potential of about 50 MAF is being exploited to an extent
of about 40 MAF by over 562,000 private and about 16,000 public tube wells .
 According to IPCC Technical Paper on Climate Change and Water
“Groundwater levels of many aquifers around the world show a decreasing
trend during the last few decades, but this is due to excessive groundwater
pumping and not to climate-related decrease in groundwater recharge”.

 The most widely used method to recharge groundwater reservoir is
delay action dams, percolation basins, modified streambeds,
diversion structures, ditches, furrows, and recharge through injection
wells.
 However, application of these methods is subject to the local
condition and topographic characteristics.

10. WATER LOGGING AND SALINITY
 Several areas of Pakistan in particular, Punjab and Sindh suffer from water
logging and salinity because of poor drainage system in the country.
 Salts carried in surface water and mobilized through unregulated ground water
pumping accumulate in the root zone, adversely affecting crops and agriculture
productivity.
 According to the Drainage Master Plan (DMP), 39% of gross commanded area in
the country is water logged and is affected by salinity.
 12% has a water table depth up to 150 cm (5 ft) while other 27% of surface soil is
saline.

 The experts are of the opinion that due to salinity problem 25% agriculture
productivity is reduced in Punjab only.
 This salinity problem may be increased due to increased evaporation under higher
projected temperature and needs to be addressed by adapting appropriate
measures.
53% OF SINDH SUFFERS FROM WATER LOGGING & SALINITY

The salinity of the groundwater generally
increases away from the rivers and also
with depth. In Punjab, 23% of the area has
hazardous groundwater quality, whereas
this figure is 78% in Sindh (Haider 2000).

11. INCREASED WATER DEMAND
 Evaporation from open water, soil, shallow groundwater, and water stored on
vegetation, along with transpiration through plants commonly referred to as
evapo-transpiration.
 Many scientists have studied the response and controls of evapo-transpiration
under current and future climate conditions and one thing is very certain that
evaporation potential will increase with warming.
 In this way arid and semi arid plains of Indus Basin may be affected severally
and need supplementary freshwater supply to maintain the ecosystem.
 This in turn suggests for the increased water storage capacity to meet the water
loss due to the increased evaporation under higher temperatures.

CLIMATE CHANGE SCIENCE STUDIES IN
PAKISTAN
 Climate Change research remained essentially neglected in Pakistan until recently.
 MAY 2002: Global Change Impact Studies Centre (GCISC) established with seed
money provided by Ministry of Sc & Tech; GCISC now being supported by
Planning Commission.
 JANUARY 2005: Prime Minister’s Committee on Climate Change established,
with GCISC as its Secretariat.
 DECEMBER 2006: GCISC attached to National Centre for Physics as an
autonomous organization.

GCISC OBJECTIVES
 The main objectives of the Centre are:
to keep a track of the current and likely future trends of Climate
Change;
to develop a national capacity for Climate Change research;
to analyze and evaluate the impacts of Climate Change on key sectors
e.g. Food and Water security;
to raise public awareness of Climate Change related issues

RECOMMENDATIONS
 Efficient use of water in all sectors particularly agriculture where more than 90%
water is being consumed.
 Encourage and support research to assess the impacts of climate change on
available water resources and account for these impacts in future resource
development strategies.
 Develop additional freshwater storage capacity to address the existing water
related stresses as well as the challenges emerging from climate change:

1. to compensate the storage capacity already lost due to sedimentation.
2. to ensure adequate supply of water round the year for all sectors.
3. to safeguard against increased variability of water supply due to increased
frequency and intensity of floods and droughts under changing climate.
4. to provide regulated flow of necessary water downstream Kotri in order to
prevent excessive intrusion of seawater into the Indus deltaic regions;
 Programme should be initiated for awareness of general public and users for
water conservation and management.

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