2. The sex information/advice genre seeks to:
Inform—transmit information that is factual and accurate
Entertain—attract audiences through hosts’ personalities
as well as high-interest or bizarre material
Often includes moral judgments
Use social science and psychiatry to give authority
3. Popular media may summarize social science
research in an oversimplified or distorted manner
Sensationalize findings
Over generalize results of research
Report statistics that agree with widely-held
preconceptions
Popular media may not emphasize the importance
of replication
4. Basic scientific principles require a commitment to
objectivity
observation of reality while excluding researchers’
feelings or beliefs
Subjectivity is to be avoided
Difficult to achieve especially in the area of sexuality
Sexuality can bring out powerful emotions and moral
ambivalence
5. Do not tell us what motivates people
Do not tell us how frequently people behave in a
given way
Do not tell us how people feel
Only tell us how we ourselves feel
Value judgments cannot be empirically evaluated
Value judgments imply how a person ought to
behave
Value judgments only reveal the thoughts or
feelings of one person
6. Objectivity describes reality
Objective positions can be tested
Cultural relativity requires that we examine
appropriateness within the cultural norms where it
exists
Objective statements describe how people actually
behave
Objective statements can be empirically evaluated
7. Opinions are unsubstantiated beliefs or
conclusions according to an individual’s
personal thoughts
Biases are personal leanings or inclinations
Stereotypes are sets of overgeneralized
beliefs about an individual, a group, or an
idea, etc.
8. A schema is a way of organizing
information which often underlies
stereotypes
Sexual stereotyping is often used to
justify discrimination or social groups
Women
Poor people
African Americans, Latino/as, Asian Americans
Gay men, lesbians, bisexuals, transgender
people
9. Stereotypes structure our knowledge by
shaping:
What we see
What we notice
What we remember
How we explain things
10. Attitude: a predisposition a person has to act,
think, or feel in certain ways
Behavior: the way a person acts
Behavior does not predict attitude and vice versa
Frequent discrepancies exist between the two on
individual and cultural levels which can result in
confusion
11. Often occur in our consideration of different ethnic groups
Transmitted from one generation to another
Prevent understanding from a culturally relative position
Fallacy: an error in reasoning that affects our understanding
of a subject
Egocentric fallacy: the belief that our own personal
experience and values are generally held by others
Ethnocentric fallacy: the belief that one’s own ethnic
group, nation, or culture’s values and customs are
innately superior to others’
12. Scientific Method: the method by which a
hypothesis is formed from impartially
gathered data and tested empirically.
Induction: drawing a general conclusion from
specific facts
Seeks to describe the world rather than to
evaluate or judge it
13. Ethical
Concerns use of human beings as subjects of
research
Methodological
Concerns center on information-gathering
techniques and accuracy
A representative sample of people is necessary
to draw accurate conclusions
14. Informed consent
Fulldisclosure of purpose, risk, benefits
Agreement to participate may be withdrawn
Protection from harm
Emotional distress must be avoided
Identity of subjects must be confidential
15. Sample: a portion of a larger group of people
are observed or studied
Inferences are made to the larger group
Good samples are:
Random
Representative
Unbiased
16. Depend on volunteers or clients
Takes place at universities or colleges with
student volunteers
Some ethnic groups are underrepresented
Gay men, lesbian women, bisexual and
transgendered people may not be publicly
identified
17. An in-depth examination of an individual or
group that comes to a specialist for
assistance with disorders and problems
Limited by an emphasis on pathological
behavior
Shaped by cultural definitions of what is
pathological
18. Questionnaires
Administered quickly
Forced choice allows many formats
Interviews
Allow more information to be gathered
Allow subjects to guide topics
Sexual diaries
Collect richer information
May work well with some subjects but not all
19. Subjects may report self behavior with bias
Interviewers may collect information with a bias
Subjects may be embarrassed in an interview
Accuracy of subjects’ memory fades as time
passes
Difficult for subjects to accurately estimate factors
such as how long sexual encounters last
20. The researcher unobtrusively observes and
makes notes about people’s behavior
Serious ethical issues in observing sexual
behavior without subjects’ knowledge or
consent
Known observation generally affects
behavior
21. The researcher participates in the behaviors
which she or he is studying
Used frequently by anthropologists
Is sex research controversial because it
compromises objectivity?
22. The systematic manipulation variables to
examine the effect on behavior
Independent variables: factors that can be
manipulated and changed by the experimenter
Dependent variables: factors that are likely to be
affected by changes in the independent variable
23. Examine effect of various amounts of alcohol
on sexual arousal
Alcohol—independentvariable
Plethysmograph measurement of arousal—
dependent variable
Causal effect demonstrated
24. In 19th century, Western sexuality began to be studied
from a scientific framework
Fascinated with “pathologies” of sex: fetishism,
sadism, masturbation, homosexuality
Since that time, a liberalizing trend in our thinking about
sexuality
20th century researchers viewed sexuality more positively Three
themes evident in later 20th century sex researchers’ work:
Belief that sexual expression is essential to an
individual’s well being
Desire to broaden the range of legitimate sexual activity,
including homosexuality
Belief that female sexuality is equal to male sexuality
25. Psychopathia Sexualis (1886):
A collection of the case histories of fetishists,
sadists, masochists, and homosexuals
Invented term sado-masochism and transvestite
Attributed variations in Victorian sexuality to
“hereditary taint,” “moral degeneracy,” and
masturbation
Brought public attention to sexual behaviors that
had never been documented
27. Oedipal Complex: Boy develops sexual desires for
mother and fears father
Castration anxiety: Fears his father will cut off his
penis: castration anxiety
Electra complex: Girl develops sexual desire for
father and fears mother
Penis envy: Girls never acquire the “lost penis” and
therefore fail to develop an independent character
like that of boys
By age 6, boys and girls resolve their complexes by
relinquishing their desires for their parents and
identifying with their same-sex parent
28. Freud was pioneering in commitment to science
and explorations of the unconscious
Over the past generation, his influence among
American sex researchers has dwindled
Lack of empiricism
Inadequate description of female development
Questions of relevance to contemporary society
In the field of sex research, his work is now
primarily of historical interest
29. One of the first modern affirmers of sexuality
Studies in the Psychology of Sex (1897-1910)
Pointed out the relativity of sexual values
Appealed to case studies as well as studies in
animal behavior, anthropology, and history
Challenged view that masturbation was
abnormal
Documented existence of women’s sexual
desires
Reevaluated homosexuality as a congenital
condition
30. The Kinsey Reports
Sexual Behavior in the Human Male (1948)
Sexual Behavior in the Human Female (1953)
Statistical
documentation of American sexual behavior
Showed a significant discrepancy between public
standards and actual standards of sexual behavior
31. Sexual Diversity and Variation
Extraordinary diversity in behaviors of subjects
Many subjects (e.g. 50% of men 28% of
women) had sexual experiences with members
of the same-sex
1 male participant had an ejaculated 1 time in
30 years vs. another who had 30 ejaculation on
average per week
Reevaluation of Masturbation
Important for women
Harmless
Pleasurable
32. Same sex behavior
Labels of “heterosexual” and
“homosexual” were inadequate ways of
understanding sexual behavior
Devised the “Kinsey Scale”
Rejection of normal/abnormal dichotomy
Sexual differences are a matter of degree,
not kind
Became an advocate of the tolerance
Decline of society
34. Statistical methodology: unrepresentative
sampling
Emphasis on quantification of sexual
behavior
Rejection of the psychological dimension
(reducing behavior to genital activity)
35. Human Sexual Response (1966)
Detailed the sexual response cycles of
hundreds of male and female research
subjects
Combined clinical observation with direct
measurement of genital arousal using
electronic devices
36. Similarity of male and female sexual
responses
Women achieve orgasms via clitoral
stimulation
Legitimized female masturbation
37. Human Sexual Inadequacy (1970)
Argued that sexual problems were not the result
of neuroses or personality disorders
Rather, lack of information, poor communication,
or relationship conflict contributed
Used behavioral therapy to treat sexual
problems with great success
38. Several large, national, or multi-site sexuality
related studies have recently been conducted
The National Health and Social Life Survey (1994)
The Youth Risk Behavior Survey (biannual)
The Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (annual)
The National Survey of Family Growth (periodic)
College Alcohol Study (every few years)
Community Intervention Trial for Youth Project
39. Large scale national sexuality related
studies
Smaller scale studies
Difficulties due to political and social
climate
Restricted funding
40. Americans are largely monogamous
On average, Americans have sex about once
a week
Adultery is the exception, not the rule
Most Americans rank vaginal intercourse as
most preferred activity followed by watching
partner undress and then oral sex
41. Homosexuality less prevalent than originally
believed (2.8% males and 1.4% female)
Orgasms appear to be the rule for men and
the exception for women (29%)
Forced sex and the misperception of it
remain critical problems 22% of women
reported feeling forced vs 3% of males who
reported forcing acts
3% of Americans claim never to have had
sex
42. A majority of Americans report experiencing a great
deal of diverse sexual activity
A small percentage of Americans report
experiencing homosexual activity
American men report more partners then women
A large group of Americans do not report using
condoms in the last year
43. Almost half report having had sexual intercourse
Few report having had sexual intercourse with four
or more partners
Over half report using a condom during their last
sexual intercourse
One fourth report of sexually active students report
using alcohol or drugs during most recent sexual
experience
44. Majority report a new sex partner in the last year
Half report experiencing oral sex within the last
month
Half report experiencing vaginal sex within the last
month
7% of men and 4.5% reported anal sex
Students do not routinely use condoms
Birth control pills and condoms are the most
commonly used contraceptive
10.7 reported using the morning after pill
45. Feminist scholarship
Focus on gender issues
Examines distribution of power in sexual
relationships
Gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender
Focuson personal experience
Examines social and psychological components
46. Gender is significant
Female experience devalued
Power is critical in relationships
Different methodologies must be
incorporated
Ethnic diversity must be addressed
47. Ulriches- born Urnings, feminine
Kertbeny- created hetero-homosexual, “manly”
Hirschfeld-result of hormones, popularized term
homosexuality, 1st gay rights group
Hooker- no difference in personality
Foucault- society creates sexuality
APA 1973 removal of homosexuality as disorder
APA 1997 reparative therapy does not work
48. Expanded definitions of sexuality
Intervention based research
Accepting and positive representation of
sexuality
50. Researchers have begun to recognize
differences among ethnic groups
Related factors: socioeconomic status,
environment, methodology, researcher’s
stereotypes