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Chapter 4 NUTR
1.
Chapter 4 The Carbohydrates:
Sugars, Starches, and Fibers © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
2.
The Chemist’s View
of Carbohydrates • Carbohydrates are made of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms. • These atoms form chemical bonds that follow the laws of nature. © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
3.
The Simple Carbohydrates •
Monosaccharrides are single sugars (most are hexoses).  Glucose serves as the essential energy source, and is commonly known as blood sugar or dextrose.  Fructose is the sweetest, occurs naturally in honey and fruits, and is added to many foods in the form of high-fructose corn syrup.  Galactose rarely occurs naturally as a single sugar. © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
4.
© 2009 Cengage
- Wadsworth
5.
© 2009 Cengage
- Wadsworth
6.
The Simple Carbohydrates •
Disaccharides are pairs of monosaccharides, one of which is always glucose  Condensation reactions link monosaccharides together.  Hydrolysis reactions split molecules and commonly occur during digestion.  Maltose consists of two glucose units. It is produced during the germination of seeds and fermentation.  Sucrose is fructose and glucose combined. It is refined from sugarcane and sugar beets, tastes sweet, and is readily available.  Lactose is galactose and glucose combined. It is found in milk and milk products. © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
7.
© 2009 Cengage
- Wadsworth
8.
The Complex
Carbohydrates • Few (oligosaccharides) or many (polysaccharides) glucose units bound/linked together in straight or branched chains. © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
9.
The Complex
Carbohydrates • Glycogen Storage form of glucose in the body Provides a rapid release of energy when needed • Starches Storage form of glucose in plants Found in grains, tubers, and legumes © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
10.
© 2009 Cengage
- Wadsworth
11.
The Complex
Carbohydrates • Dietary fibers provide structure in plants, are very diverse, and cannot be broken down by human enzymes.  Soluble fibers are viscous and can be digested by intestinal bacteria (this property is also known as fermentability). These fibers are found in fruits and vegetables.  Insoluble fibers are nonviscous and are not digested by intestinal bacteria. These fibers are found in grains and vegetables. © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
12.
© 2009 Cengage
- Wadsworth
13.
The Complex
Carbohydrates • Fiber Sources  Dietary fibers are found in plant foods.  Functional fibers are health-benefiting fibers that are added to foods or supplements.  Total fiber considers both dietary and functional fibers. • Resistant starches escape digestion and are found in legumes, raw potatoes and unripe bananas. • Phytic acid or phytate has a close association with fiber and binds some minerals. © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
14.
Digestion and Absorption
of Carbohydrates • Carbohydrate Digestion • In the mouth, the salivary enzyme amylase begins to hydrolyze starch into short polysaccharides and maltose. • In the stomach, acid continues to hydrolyze starch while fiber delays gastric emptying and provides a feeling of fullness (satiety). © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
15.
Digestion and Absorption
of Carbohydrates • Carbohydrate Digestion In the small intestine, pancreatic amylase among other enzymes (maltase, sucrase, and lactase) hydrolyzes starches to disaccharides and monosaccharides. In the large intestine, fibers remain and attract water, soften stools and ferment. © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
16.
© 2009 Cengage
- Wadsworth
17.
Digestion and Absorption
of Carbohydrates • Carbohydrate Absorption Primarily takes place in the small intestine Glucose and galactose are absorbed by active transport. Fructose is absorbed by facilitated diffusion. © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
18.
© 2009 Cengage
- Wadsworth
19.
Digestion and Absorption
of Carbohydrates • Lactose Intolerance  Symptoms include bloating, abdominal discomfort, and diarrhea.  Causes include lactase deficiency due to a natural decrease that occurs with aging or damaged intestinal villi.  Prevalence • Lowest in Scandinavians and northern Europeans • Highest in Southeast Asians and native North Americans © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
20.
Digestion and Absorption
of Carbohydrates • Lactose Intolerance - Dietary Changes  Increase consumption of milk products gradually.  Mix dairy with other foods.  Spread dairy intake throughout the day.  Use of acidophilus milk, yogurt, and kefir (fermented products)  Use of enzymes  Individualization of diets  Must be careful that vitamin and mineral deficiencies do not develop © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
21.
Glucose in the
Body • A Preview of Carbohydrate Metabolism  The body stores glucose as glycogen in liver and muscle cells.  The body uses glucose for energy if glycogen stores are available.  If glycogen stores are depleted, the body makes glucose from protein. • Gluconeogenesis is the conversion of protein to glucose. • Protein-sparing action is having adequate carbohydrate in the diet to prevent the breakdown of protein for energy. © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
22.
Glucose in the
Body • A Preview of Carbohydrate Metabolism  Making ketone bodies from fat fragments • The accumulation of ketone bodies in the blood is called ketosis. • Ketosis upsets the acid-base balance in the body.  The body can use glucose to make body fat when carbohydrates are consumed excessively. © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
23.
Glucose in the
Body • The Constancy of Blood Glucose Maintaining Glucose Homeostasis • Low blood glucose may cause dizziness and weakness. • High blood glucose may cause fatigue. • Extreme fluctuations can be fatal. © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
24.
Glucose in the
Body • The Constancy of Blood Glucose  The Regulating Hormones • Insulin moves glucose into the cells and helps to lower blood sugar levels. • Glucagon brings glucose out of storage and raises blood sugar levels. • Epinephrine acts quickly to bring glucose out of storage during times of stress.  Balance glucose within the normal range by eating balanced meals regularly with adequate complex carbohydrates.  Blood glucose can fall outside the normal range with hypoglycemia or diabetes. © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
25.
© 2009 Cengage
- Wadsworth
26.
Glucose in the
Body • The Constancy of Blood Glucose  Diabetes • Type 1 diabetes is the less common type with no insulin produced by the body. • Type 2 diabetes is the more common type where fat cells resist insulin. • Prediabetes is blood glucose that is higher than normal but below the diagnosis of diabetes.  Hypoglycemia is low blood glucose and can often be controlled by dietary changes. © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
27.
Glucose in the
Body • The Constancy of Blood Glucose  Glycemic response is how quickly the blood glucose rises and elicits an insulin response. • Glycemic index classifies foods according to their potential for raising blood glucose. • Glycemic load refers to a food’s glycemic index and the amount of carbohydrate the food contains. • The benefit of the glycemic index is controversial. © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
28.
© 2009 Cengage
- Wadsworth
29.
Health Effects and
Recommended Intakes of Sugars • Sugar poses no major health problem except dental caries. • Excessive intakes may displace nutrients and contribute to obesity. • Consuming foods with added sugars should be limited. • Naturally occurring sugars from fruits, vegetables and milk are acceptable sources. © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
30.
Health Effects and
Recommended Intakes of Sugars • Health Effects of Sugars  Foods with added sugars have sugars listed as a first ingredient.  Nutrient deficiencies may develop from the intake of empty kcalories. • Just because a substance is natural does not mean it is nutritious. (Example: honey)  Dental caries may be caused by bacteria residing in dental plaque and the length of time sugars have contact with the teeth. © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
31.
© 2009 Cengage
- Wadsworth
32.
Health Effects and
Recommended Intakes of Sugars • Controversies Surrounding Sugars  Excessive sugar intake can contribute to the development of body fat.  Sugar may be able to alter blood lipid levels and contribute to heart disease in some.  There is no scientific evidence that sugar causes misbehavior in children and criminal behavior in adults.  There is a theory that sugar increases serotonin levels, which can lead to cravings and addictions. © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
33.
Health Effects and
Recommended Intakes of Sugars • Recommended Intakes of Sugars The USDA Food Guide states that added sugars can be included in the diet as part of discretionary kcalories. Dietary Guidelines state to limit intake of foods and beverages that are high in added sugars. DRI suggest added sugars should contribute no more than 25% of a day’s total energy intake. © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
34.
Health Effects and
Recommended Intakes of Starch and Fibers • Health Effects of Starch and Fibers  May be some protection from heart disease and stroke • Soluble fibers bind with bile and thereby lower blood cholesterol levels. • Fiber may also displace fat in the diet.  Reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes by decreasing glucose absorption  Enhance the health of the GI tract which can then block the absorption of unwanted particles  May protect against colon cancer by removing potential cancer-causing agents from the body © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
35.
Health Effects and
Recommended Intakes of Starch and Fibers • Health Effects of Starch and Fibers Promote weight control because complex carbohydrates provide less fat and added sugar. Harmful effects of excessive fiber intake • Displaces energy and nutrient-dense foods • Abdominal discomfort and distention • May interfere with nutrient absorption © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
36.
Health Effects and
Recommended Intakes of Starch and Fibers • Recommended Intakes of Starch and Fibers  RDA for carbohydrate is 130 g per day, or 45-65% of energy intake.  Daily Value is 300 grams per day.  Dietary Guidelines encourage a variety of whole grains, vegetables, fruits and legumes daily.  Healthy People 2010 recommends six servings of grains and five servings of fruits and vegetables. © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
37.
Health Effects and
Recommended Intakes of Starch and Fibers • Recommended Intakes of Fiber  FDA recommends 25 grams for a 2,000- kcalorie diet.  DRI at 14 g per 1000 kcalorie intake (28 grams for a 2,000 kcalorie diet)  American Dietetic Association recommends 20-35 g per day.  World Health Organization suggests no more than 40 g per day. © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
38.
© 2009 Cengage
- Wadsworth
39.
Health Effects and
Recommended Intakes of Starch and Fibers • From Guidelines to Groceries  Grains – encourage whole grains  Vegetables – starchy and nonstarchy vegetables differ in carbohydrate content  Fruits – vary in water, fiber and sugar content  Milks and Milk Products – contain carbohydrate; cheese is low  Meat and Meat Alternates – meats are low but nuts and legumes have some carbohydrate  Food labels list grams of carbohydrate, fiber and sugar; starch grams can be calculated. © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
40.
© 2009 Cengage
- Wadsworth
41.
Alternatives to Sugar
© 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
42.
Artificial Sweeteners • Also
called nonnutritive sweeteners Saccharin • Used primarily in soft drinks and as a tabletop sweetener • Rapidly excreted in the urine • Does not accumulate in the body • Has been removed from list of cancer- causing substances © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
43.
Artificial Sweeteners • Aspartame
General purpose sweetener Warning about phenylalanine for those with PKU Controversial finding that aspartame may have caused cancer in rats Excessive intake should be avoided by those with epilepsy © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
44.
© 2009 Cengage
- Wadsworth
45.
Artificial Sweeteners • Acesulfame-K
(acesulfame potassium)  Research confirms safety © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
46.
Artificial Sweeteners • Sucralose
Made from sugar Passes through digestive tract • Neotame Most recent on the market Very sweet Phenylalanine not an issue © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
47.
Artificial Sweeteners • Tagatose
Used for foods and beverages Provides less kcalories than sugar High doses can cause flatulence and loose stools. • Alitame and Cyclamate Pending FDA approval Approved in other countries © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
48.
Artificial Sweeteners • Acceptable
Daily Intake (ADI) is the level of consumption, maintained every day and still safe by a wide margin.  Moderation and variety are still recommended. • Artificial Sweeteners and Weight Control  Much research still being done  Using artificial sweeteners will not automatically reduce energy intake. © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
49.
Stevia – An
Herbal Alternative • Lacks research • Classified as a dietary supplement • Not required to have testing and FDA approval © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
50.
Sugar Replacers • Also
called nutritive sweeteners, sugar alcohols, and polyols • Maltitol, mannitol, sorbitol, xylitol, isomalt, and lactitol • Absorbed more slowly and metabolized differently in the body • Low glycemic response • Side effects include GI discomfort © 2009 Cengage - Wadsworth
51.
© 2009 Cengage
- Wadsworth
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