Risk

Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 15 (2008) 277–287
The influence of nostalgic memories on consumer exploratory
tendencies: Echoes from scents past
Ulrich R. OrthÃ, Aurelie Bourrain
Christian-Albrechts-Universita¨t Kiel, Agribusiness & Food Marketing, Wilhelm-Seelig-Platz 6/7 24098 Kiel, Germany
Abstract
Integrating research on atmospherics with the power of nostalgia, this paper investigates the influence of scent-evoked nostalgic
memories on consumer exploratory behavior. The context for the experiment is a laboratory setting scented with natural and manmade
odors. Testing a comprehensive structural equation model shows that ambient scent evokes nostalgic memories which in turn positively
influence consumer sensation seeking with downstream effects extending onto exploratory tendencies, namely on risk taking, variety
seeking and curiosity-motivated behaviors. In addition, those behavioral states are affected by consumer personality. Theoretical and
practical implications of these findings are discussed.
r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Ambient odor; Arousal; Feelings; Personality; Shopping behavior
1. Introduction
Research on atmospherics has shown great promise for
influencing consumer-shopping behavior. In their review of
experimental evidence, Turley and Milliman (2000) report
statistically significant relationships between numerous
elements of a store’s complex atmospherics and consu-
mer-shopping behavior. Overall, the effect of a retail
environment on consumer behavior is both strong and
robust, thus indicating various options for retailers to
shape the store environment for eliciting favorable
behaviors from consumers (Michon et al., 2006).
In a parallel stream of thought, the notion that the ‘‘dear
departed past’’ (Holbrook and Schindler, 1991, p. 330) may
be used as a source of market value had a strong impact on
both marketing practice and research over the past decade
(Brown et al., 2003). In particular, nostalgia, an ‘‘indivi-
dual’s desire for the past or a liking for possessions and
activities of days gone by’’ (Holbrook, 1993, p. 245), has
received considerable attention from researchers in market-
ing, consumer behavior, and psychology (see cf. Rind-
fleisch and Sprott, 2000 for a review). Little attention,
however, has been given to evoked nostalgia, that is,
autobiographical nostalgic memories as a fleeting consu-
mer state, and its potential influence on behavior. Such
autobiographical memories constitute memories of past
personal experiences, which come with a strong emotional-
motivational charge (Baumgartner et al., 1992). Nostalgic
memories thus represent a subset of autobiographical
memories that are charged with positive affect (cf. Holak
and Havlena, 1998).
Few studies have linked evoked nostalgic memories to
consumer behavior, and all of those were conducted in an
advertising context (cf., Muehling and Sprott, 2004; Pascal
et al., 2002; Sujan et al., 1993). Details of whether or how
nostalgic memories actually work in a retail environment
remain largely unknown. Even initial evidence is not
available on this question, i.e. from experiments in
controlled environments that could extend the literature
in a manner beginning to address implementation.
This study examines effects of scent-induced nostalgic
memories on consumer exploratory tendencies. It integrates
past findings that nostalgic memories generate a variety of
strong emotional-motivational responses (Baumgartner,
1992; Holak and Havlena, 1998; Sujan et al., 1993) and
suggestions that consumer exploratory tendencies are driven
by both consumer sensation seeking states and personality
ARTICLE IN PRESS
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0969-6989/$ - see front matter r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jretconser.2007.06.001
ÃCorresponding author. Tel.: +49 431 880 4416; fax: +49 431 880 2044.
E-mail address: uorth@ae.uni-kiel.de (U.R. Orth).

rather than by the personality alone (Baumgartner and
Steenkamp, 1991). It is argued that nostalgic memories may
exert an important influence on consumer sensation seeking
states with downstream effects extending onto consumer
exploratory tendencies and behavior. By testing the paths
and effects in a comprehensive structural equation model,
the findings will enhance our understanding of consumer
response to nostalgic memories in the realm of atmo-
spherics, and the role of consumer state and personality in
downstream effects, particularly with respect to the ex-
ploratory acquisition of products and information. In
addition, literature will be extended through a better
understanding of the potential of scent to evoke measurable
nostalgic memories. Fig. 1 summarizes the hypothesized
relations between model components.
2. Theoretical framework
2.1. Scent as a trigger of nostalgic memories
A substantial body of empirical and theoretical evidence
suggests that scent is among the most powerful triggers of
nostalgic memories. Choosing ambient scent among the
many tangible and intangible options for evoking con-
sumer nostalgic memories accounts for past research
reporting that even an unnamed smell can elicit describable
contextual memories (Annett, 1996). Intangible stimuli,
such as food aromas and smells were particularly effective
in triggering nostalgic thoughts (Holak and Havlena,
1992). In addition, scent appears to be superior to other
experimental stimuli such as music because odors have
been found to produce positive (and negative) memories
with minimal cognitive involvement (Ehrlichman and
Halpern, 1988). It is thus believed that consumer response
to odors follows a path of peripheral rather than central
processing (cf., Alpert and Alpert, 2004), largely bypassing
cognitions in the creation of nostalgic memories and
subsequent emotions.
Our view of nostalgic memories as affect-laden memories
which involve the context of the smell (e.g., summer at the
lake, holiday gatherings) further draws support from the
study of memory proper (see Schab, 1991 for a review).
Memory for smells is intrinsically different than visual or
auditory memory because (1) odor memory is independent
of memory of other modalities, and (2) it is resistant to
interference and thus long-lasting (Annett, 1996). Olfactory
memory hence appears to be qualitatively different from
other forms of memory in that it involves memory for what
are primarily sensations rather than for highly interpreted
(and hence verbalized) perceptions. The distinct physiolo-
gical reasons for the potential of scents to short-circuit to
emotionally charged contextual memories via olfactory
memory have been identified only very recently through
research on odor detection, translation and representation
in the human brain (Nobel Assembly, 2004). Additional
support for the potential of environmental scent to trigger
nostalgic memories and consequently to evoke positive
affective states draws from Hirsch (1992) who identified
particular smells that precipitated childhood memories and
the overall level of happiness with one’s childhood.
Especially odors of nature (e.g. flowers, fruits) as well as
manmade odors (e.g. freshly baked bread, cookies, cakes,
and other food) reminded people pleasantly of their
childhood.
2.2. Consumer response to nostalgic memories
Little academic research has attempted to determine
whether nostalgic memories influence consumer-shopping
behavior, and through what paths corresponding effects
may be channeled. The interest in nostalgia advertising
testifies to advertising’s ability to cue or prime such
memories (Holbrook and Schindler, 1991), and researchers
have shown that ad-evoked memories influence attitudes
and likings (Baumgartner et al., 1992). However, there
appears to be a lack of corresponding research in retail
atmospherics.
There is good reason to believe that scent-induced
nostalgic memories work primarily through changes in
consumer sensation seeking states with downstream effects
onto behavioral outcomes. As an emotional-motivational
state, consumer sensation seeking is complex in that its
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Non-hypothesized Paths
Risk Taking
Variety
Seeking
Curiosity-
motivated
Behavior
Sensation
Seeking Trait
Sensation
Seeking State
H1 (+)
H2a (+)
H2b (+)
Nostalgic
Memories
H2c (+)
H3a (+)
H3b (+)
H3c (+)
H4 (+)
Ambient
Scent
Fig. 1. Hypothesized relationships between model components.
U.R. Orth, A. Bourrain / Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 15 (2008) 277–287278

generation can involve positive feelings (the terms emotions
and feelings are used interchangeably here) associated with
the re-living of the original experience, as well as relatively
unpleasant components of excitement and arousal due to
an unfulfilled yearning for the past (Zuckerman, 1979).
Holak and Havlena (1998) argue that nostalgic memories
are linked to positive emotions such as joy, warmth,
affection and gratitude as well as sadness and desire to
produce such a mixed but generally positive emotional-
motivational outcome. Triggered by nostalgic memories
consumer sensation seeking states thus reflect an emotion-
ally charged desire for new sensory input that motivates
exploratory behavior and knowledge acquisition (Berlyne,
1958; Steenkamp et al., 1996).
While the bulk of olfactory-related research in psychol-
ogy has focused on the role of memory and cognition
(Richardson and Zucco, 1989), recent studies attest to
odor’s potential to directly or indirectly evoke changes in
people’s feelings (Campenni et al., 2004). Regarding a
possible indirect path via nostalgic memories, Zhu and
Meyers-Levy (2005) show that positive feelings emerge
from semantic associations, particularly nostalgic associa-
tions with a stimulus. Termed ‘‘referential meaning’’, this
phenomenon results from context-dependent conceptual
associations with the stimulus. It further supports our
notion that emotions play a pivotal role in consumer
response to nostalgic memories. Consumer responses are
likely to be affective in nature with an increased retrieval of
autobiographical memories, since remembering affect-
laden personal experiences is accompanied by a reliving
of the original emotion accompanied by arousal (Sujan
et al., 1993). This emotional-motivational response is
likely to be positive because there is a general bias
toward remembering positive episodes from one’s life
(Baumgartner et al., 1992).
Downstream influences of consumer emotional-motiva-
tional states on individual behavior, in turn, are generally
acknowledged (Clark and Isen, 1982). Emotions as well as
arousal have been found to significantly influence con-
sumer activity in the marketplace (Chebat and Michon,
2003; Donovan and Rossiter, 1994; Sherman et al., 1997).
Various consumer shopping behaviors such as approach/
avoidance, impulse buying and enhanced satisfaction have
been linked to emotional-motivational states (Mattila and
Wirtz, 2001; Wakefield and Baker, 1998).
2.3. Consumer exploratory behavior, trait and state
antecedents
Individual behavior, aimed at modifying sensory input
from the environment, has been termed ‘‘exploratory
behavior’’. Dominating the body of consumer behavioral
studies is Raju’s (1980) categorization of three situation-
specific exploratory tendencies (Steenkamp and Baumgart-
ner, 1992; Baumgartner and Steenkamp, 1996; Gierl et al.,
1999): (1) Risk taking describes exploratory behavior
expressed through choices of innovative and unfamiliar
alternatives that are perceived as risky, (2) Variety seeking
is expressed through an individual’s switching within
familiar alternatives, including brand switching, and an
aversion to habitual behavior, and (3) Curiosity-motivated
behavior involves exploratory information seeking, inter-
personal communication and shopping. Downstream
effects of exploratory tendencies on exploratory behavior
have been reported for various product categories, for risk
taking (e.g., Burns and Krampf, 1992), variety seeking
(e.g., Van Trijp et al., 1996), and curiosity-motivated
behavior (e.g., Baumgartner and Steenkamp, 1996; Van
Trijp et al., 1996).
Consistent with a self-regulatory approach, individuals
modify sensory input through exploratory behavior in
order to regulate sensory and cognitive stimulation
resulting in differential states of emotions and arousal
(Berlyne, 1960; Wundt, 1874; Zuckerman, 1994). Research-
ers have therefore suggested a more aggregate categoriza-
tion of exploratory behavior into two dimensions,
seeking of sensory and cognitive input (Baumgartner
and Steenkamp, 1991; Zuckerman, 1994). Sensory explora-
tion is associated with the exploratory acquisition of
products through risky and innovative product choices
and changing purchase experiences, whereas cognitive
exploration is associated with exploratory information
seeking through the acquisition of consumption relevant
knowledge out of curiosity (Baumgartner and Steenkamp,
1996).
A significant part of the variance observed in consumer
exploratory behavior has been attributed to individual
differences in consumer sensation seeking, that is, a
person’s intrinsically motivated desire to accomplish a
specific level of sensory input (Raju, 1980; Roberti et al.,
2003). Consumer research has confirmed behavioral
differences correlated with different levels of sensation
seeking indicating that an individual’s personality has a
significant influence on their situation-specific exploratory
behavior (Steenkamp and Baumgartner, 1992). Both,
cognitive and sensory dimensions of exploratory behavior
relate to individual differences, but consumer personality
was generally found to be correlated more strongly with the
sensory than with the cognitive dimension (Baumgartner
and Steenkamp, 1996).
While individual difference or trait approaches have
experienced a veritable rebirth in the study of consumer
behavior (Baumgartner, 2002), they usually are not
exclusive predictors of consumer behavior. Situation-
specific factors, specifically sensation seeking states, also
affect consumer-shopping behavior. Therefore, neither
individual differences (traits) nor situational factors (states)
are of exclusive importance per se; instead, it is the person-
within-a-situation interaction that contributes most of the
variance (Baumgartner and Steenkamp, 1991). In the
current context of consumer response to nostalgic mem-
ories, it seems reasonable to assume that sensation seeking
states act in concert with individual personalities (sensation
seeking traits) to influence exploratory tendencies.
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U.R. Orth, A. Bourrain / Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 15 (2008) 277–287 279

3. Hypotheses
Our hypotheses set out from the notion that scent is a
powerful trigger of autobiographical nostalgic memories
(Annett, 1996; Hirsch, 1992; Holak and Havlena, 1998).
Those nostalgic memories, in turn, produce mixed but
generally positive ermotional-motivational outcomes
(Holak and Havlena, 1998). Without neglecting the role
of cognition in memory research (Richardson and
Zucco, 1989), emotions—accompanied by arousal—emer-
ging from nostalgic associations with a stimulus appear to
play the primary role (Campenni et al., 2004; Sujan et al.,
1993; Zhu and Meyers-Levy, 2005). In addition, a person’s
emotional-motivational response is likely to be positive
because there is a general bias toward remembering
positive episodes from one’s life (Baumgartner et al.,
1992). We therefore advance the first hypothesis that scent-
induced nostalgic memories exert a positive influence on
emotional-motivational responses, namely sensation seek-
ing states:
H1. Nostalgic memories positively influence individual
sensation seeking states.
The majority of studies investigating risk-taking, variety-
seeking, and curiosity-related behaviors has not been
conducted in a shopping context. In addition, scholars
have focused on a variety of concepts and measures
including the role of mood, emotions, and arousal in
influencing consumer exploratory behavior. Because of
links between the concepts and measures employed in past
research and the emotional-motivational focus of this
study we include corresponding literature for developing
our hypotheses.
Moods, for example, are general predispositions to
respond in specific ways (Aaker et al., 1986). In contrast
to longer lasting moods, emotions are acute, specific, and
reactive (triggered i.e., by nostalgic memories), changing
rapidly, in seconds or minutes (Holbrook and O’Shaugh-
nessy, 1984). Operationalizations of moods and emotions
in past studies on exploratory behavior, however, do not
always reflect those conceptual differences.
Regarding risk-taking tendencies, Raghunathan and
Pham (1999) report positive correlations with negative
moods, particularly anxiety and sadness. This negative
effect is in line with Leith and Baumeister’s (1996)
suggestion that risk-taking behaviors are linked to un-
pleasant moods. However, Leith and Baumeister (1996)
find such an effect only when negative moods are
accompanied by high arousal. As discussed before, arousal
is linked to feelings and sensation seeking states via the
intrinsically motivated desire to accomplish a specific
level of (optimum) stimulation. According to the goal-
oriented self-regulatory position, individuals modify sen-
sory input i.e. through exploratory behavior in order to
obtain stimulation leading to differential affective states
(Zuckerman, 1979). Further investigating the specific role
of arousal, Caffray and Schneider (2000) show positive
effects on risky behaviors of adolescents such as drinking
alcohol, using drugs, and having sex. This outcome is also
in line with Leith and Baumeister’s (1996) findings.
More support for a positive correlation between sensa-
tion seeking states and risk taking stems from Mano’s
(1994) examination of both pleasure and arousal influences
on risk-taking behaviors. In his study, higher arousal levels
lead to higher risk-taking expressed as higher willingness-
to-pay for lotteries as well as lower willingness-to-pay for
insurance. Also, higher pleasantness leads to greater risk-
taking expressed in terms of higher willingness-to-pay
for lotteries. Similarly, Nicholson et al. (2005) find that
stimulation-seeking promotes risk-taking.
Therefore, while some longer-lasting general predisposi-
tions may have a negative effect on risk taking, the acute
emotional-motivational states which are in the center of
this study’s interest appear to be positively correlated. Not
only report Isen and Patrick (1983) positive effects of
feelings on risk taking. In addition, there appears to be
agreement that the relationships between affective states
and risk taking depend on what is at stake. Specifically
when the stakes are low, the relationship between sensa-
tion-seeking and risk taking is positive (Fessler et al., 2004;
Isen and Patrick, 1983). Because the risks involved in
shopping are relatively minor when compared to behaviors
such as drug use, sex, or gambling, we follow the argument
that consumers who experience higher sensation seeking
states (e.g., feel more elated, daring, pleased, or stimulated)
are more likely to take risks through choices of innovative
or unfamiliar choices:
H2a. An individual’s sensation seeking state positively
influences risk taking.
Regarding variety-seeking behavior, Kahn and Isen
(1993) have suggested that positive moods increase such
behavior. However, other research has linked consumer
sensation seeking negatively to variety-seeking (Menon and
Kahn, 1995). Because the latter study separated effects of
choice context stimulation and the stimulation derived
from product choice, consumer sensation seeking may have
been met by variety in a different product category or in
other aspects of the choice context. In addition, if positive
feelings were induced along with sensations then the
reduction in variety-seeking behavior was mitigated
(Menon and Kahn 1995). Only tentative support for a
positive relation between sensation seeking and variety-
seeking is provided by a study of exploratory behavior in
an Internet-shopping context (Menon and Kahn, 2002).
Our proposition of positive relationship between consumer
emotional-motivational states and variety seeking therefore
draws from findings that individuals in a state of boredom
(stronger need for sensation) are more willing to conduct
interesting tasks (Kraiger et al., 1989). Berlyne (1958)
originally suggests that when an individual is confronted
with an object more complex, novel or irregular, their
arousal increases. Because the most effective means of
reducing arousal is to simply explore the source, individual
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sensation-seeking states should be positively related to
variety seeking, i.e., switching to a different brand or
product. Consistent with this notion, Martin et al. (2005)
demonstrate that consumer sensation-seeking is positively
correlated with preferences for verbal and visual complex-
ity in websites. Gierl et al. (1999), finally, confirm positive
relations between consumer emotional-motivational states
and their variety seeking. We therefore postulate:
H2b. An individual’s sensation seeking state positively
influences their variety seeking.
Regarding effects from sensation seeking states on
curiosity-motivated behavior, Gierl et al. (1999) suggest
that such a relationship is positive. This would be in line
with Berlyne’s (1958) theorizing: because the most effective
means of reducing arousal is to simply explore the source,
sensation-seeking states should be positively related to
curiosity-motivated behavior (Litman et al., 2005). In
addition, if, as reported in past studies (Gierl et al., 1999;
Zuckerman, 1979) sensation seeking traits and states are
positively correlated, and if the sensation seeking trait is
positively correlated with exploratory behavior (Raju,
1980; Baumgartner and Steenkamp, 1996), then it can be
predicted that sensation seeking states will be positively
related to all three consumer exploratory tendencies.
Accordingly, sensation-seeking states will be positively
related to curiosity-motivated behavior:
H2c. An individual’s sensation seeking state positively
influences their curiosity-motivated behavior.
Regarding the influence of consumer personality or
individual differences (i.e., the sensation seeking trait) past
research has found both sensory and cognitive sensation
seeking to be related to the trait, but generally the trait was
correlated more strongly with the sensory than with the
cognitive dimension (Baumgartner and Steenkamp, 1996).
Effects from the sensation-seeking trait on the three facets
of exploratory behavior were all positive. Although the
following hypotheses parallel fragments of prior studies,
they have not been tested in the comprehensive structural
equation context proposed here. Our third set of hypoth-
eses, therefore, is:
H3a. An individual’s sensation seeking trait positively
influences their risk taking.
H3b. An individual’s sensation seeking trait positively
influences their variety seeking.
H3c. An individual’s sensation seeking trait positively
influences their curiosity-motivated behavior.
As outlined before, individuals engage in exploratory
behavior to attain a satisfactory level of stimulation. The
differences in the amount of stimulation considered
optimal by an individual are reliable, constituting the
sensation-seeking trait (Berlyne, 1960; Raju, 1980; Roberti
et al., 2003). In addition, this intrinsically motivated desire
has been suggested to be positively related to consumer
sensation seeking states (Steenkamp and Baumgartner,
1992; Zuckerman, 1979). When responding to a stimulus,
individuals with an intrinsically higher level of sensation
seeking (trait) exhibit higher sensation seeking states than
individuals with a lower trait level. Analogous, individuals
with an intrinsically lower trait level exhibit comparatively
lower state levels in response to a stimulus. Gierl et al.
(1999) have provided initial evidence for this notion
but they did not employ a measure suitable for assessing
short-term sensation seeking states. Our final hypothesis
therefore is:
H4. An individual’s sensation seeking trait positively
influences their sensation seeking state.
4. Method
4.1. Sample and data collection
To exclude the influence of potentially distorting
environmental variables such as noise, lighting, tempera-
ture or crowding, data were collected in a laboratory
setting from a consumer panel maintained by sensory
scientists at a university located in the Pacific Northwest of
the United States. Three hundred panel members were
selected randomly and received an invitation to participate
in a new product test. Consistent with past panel
participations, a $10 gift certificate, valid at a variety of
local stores and restaurants, was offered as an incentive. Of
the 300 panel members who received an invitation, 281
consumers participated in this study (N ¼ 281), yielding a
response rate of 93.7%. The participants represented a
broad range of age groups (18–71 years of age, mean
age ¼ 38.4, SD ¼ 8.47); 60% of the respondents were
females. While the potential for non-response bias cannot
be dismissed, we take the high response rate as an
indication that such a non-response bias may be minimal.
4.2. Stimuli and pretests
The scent selection was based on past research (Hirsch,
1992) with a pretest (n ¼ 19) conducted among the target
population to determine scents capable of producing
nostalgic responses. The scents were presented following
established procedures (Morrin and Ratneshwar, 2000):
identified by randomly assigned numbers, each scent was
presented in a small lid-covered glass containing an aroma
stick which had been dipped one quarter inch deep into the
essential oil. Pre-testers removed the lid and sniffed the
scent in random order approximately 4 in from the nose.
A total of 54 aromas were included and evaluated on the
NOST scale, a 10-item seven-point Likert-type battery
(Pascal et al., 2002), for their potential to evoke nostalgic
memories. The scents were evaluated in subsets of six
separated by extensive breaks. Student’s t-test on mean
ratings revealed that some scents were more powerful
stimuli than others, resulting in higher scores on the NOST
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scale. Because of the highly individualistic nature of
nostalgic cues (Holbrook, 1993), five scents with the
highest respective scores were selected for the subsequent
study. Those scents were Blackberry, Cinnamon, Citrus
blossom, Green Pepper (the smell of newly mowed grass),
and freshly baked bread.
4.3. Procedure
Another pilot test was conducted in the experimental
room subsequently used for the main study to refine the
scent diffusion technique. The test as well as the main
experiment followed procedural guidelines validated in
past research (Fiore et al., 2000; Morrin and Ratneshwar,
2000; Spangenberg et al., 1996). Specifically, scents
were emitted by electrical diffusers into which a pre-
determined number of essential oil drops were placed to
ascertain a noticeable yet subtle fragrance in the air. In the
scented condition, diffusers which were invisible to the
participants emitted the scent into the atmosphere one
hour prior to participant admission; in the unscented
condition, no scent was emitted. Before each treatment, the
room was thoroughly ventilated to eliminate any preexist-
ing odor.
Participants were admitted in small groups of six
individuals into the lab. Each participant was seated
in an individual booth in front of identical computer
screens where a questionnaire was administered that
operationalized the model constructs under the guise of a
new product test. Respondents completed questions that
established sensation seeking trait and state, exploratory
tendencies, evoked nostalgic memories, and demographic
variables.
4.4. Measurements
Well-tested measures for all constructs were available
and were employed. A summary of the measurement
characteristics of all study constructs is shown in Table 1.
To assess the Nostalgic Memories evoked by the scents,
participants evaluated the respective condition using the
10-item, seven-point NOST scale developed and validated
in past studies (Pascal et al., 2002; Muehling and Sprott,
2004). Preceded by the introductory phrase ‘‘The atmo-
sphere in this roomy’’, the scale included items such as
‘‘yreminds me of the past,’’ ‘‘y helps me recall pleasant
memories,’’ ‘‘y makes me feel nostalgic’’, among others.
Consistent with past applications, the scale items loaded
strongly on a single factor (eigenvalue ¼ 7.02; explained
variance ¼ .78) with uni-dimensionality established
through principal-components factor analysis with vari-
max rotation. In addition, the scale was found to be highly
consistent (Cronbach’s a ¼ .95) with satisfactory sampling
adequacy (Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin ¼ .92; Kaiser, 1974).
Closely aligned with past research (Caffray and Schnei-
der, 2000; Mano, 1994; Martin et al., 2005; Menon and
Kahn, 2002; Nicholson et al., 2005), Zuckerman’s (1979)
scale was employed for assessing each individual’s sensation
seeking state. Given the mixed emotional-motivational
responses evoked by nostalgic memories, this item battery
was considered to be particularly useful. For each of
the 15 items (adventurous, amused, elated, confident,
cooperative, curious, daring, enthusiastic, imaginative,
interested, joyful, lucky, playful, pleased, zany), consumer
response to the statement ‘‘Right now, I feely’’ was
measured on a seven-point Likert type scale. Preliminary
measurement models confirmed that a single factor
solution provided a superior fit to the data compared to
two- or more-factor models. Specifically, the one-factor
model had a significantly lower w2
and significantly higher
fit statistics (higher adjusted goodness-of-fit index, or
AGFI, and normed fit index, or NFI, and lower root
mean square error of approximation, or RMSEA) than
two-, three-, or four-factor models. In addition, the model
fit was better if ‘‘zany’’—which was thought to be an old-
fashioned term—was dropped.
Steenkamp and Baumgartner’s (1995) change seeker
index (CSI) was used for measuring individuals’ sensation
seeking trait. The seven-item battery has been validated
across cultures and has been shown to be superior
to other scales (Steenkamp and Baumgartner, 1995). Using
the eigenvalue cutoff-criterion, principal-components
factor analysis with varimax rotation established unidimen-
sionality with the scale items loading on a single factor
(eigenvalue ¼ 4.07; explained variance ¼ .69). Reliability
was found to be acceptable (Cronbach’s a ¼ .92) and the
sampling adequacy was satisfactory (Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin
value ¼ .90).
To assess risk taking, variety seeking, and curiosity-
motivated behavior at a state level, consumer exploratory
tendencies were measured through the scale introduced by
Raju (1980), the instrument most commonly used in this
context. To alleviate the task load on the respondents, the
original number of 39 items was reduced to 12 (Wahlers
et al., 1986; Gierl et al., 1999). Preliminary measurement
models confirmed that a three-factor solution provided a
superior fit to the data compared to a single factor
solution. Specifically, the three-factor model had a
significantly lower w2
and significantly higher fit statistics
than a one-factor model or two-factor models.
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Table 1
Summary statistics and reliabilities for study constructs
Variable Mean Standard
deviation
Reliability
(a)
Nostalgic memories 4.52 1.28 .95
Affective state 5.05 1.17 .88
Sensation seeking trait 5.30 1.25 .92
Risk taking 4.25 1.21 .78
Variety seeking 4.01 1.27 .86
Curiosity-motivated
behavior
5.31 1.13 .81

5. Results
5.1. Manipulation check
A fundamental premise of this study is that ambient scent is
linked to nostalgic memories. To ascertain that the scents
diffused actually evoked nostalgic memories, analysis of
variance (ANOVA) was performed. Differences were
found (F(5,275) ¼ 6.29, po.001) for the five scents and the
control group, confirming that the scents indeed produced
nostalgic memories (MNo scent ¼ 2.44, MBlackberry ¼ 4.12,
MCinnamon ¼ 5.42, MCitrus blossom ¼ 4.25, MGreen pepper ¼ 5.61,
MFresh-baked bread
¼ 5.64). The manipulation check thus shows that
‘‘no scent’’ did not evoke nostalgic memories, that citrus
blossom and blackberry were somewhat more likely to evoke
nostalgic memories, and that green pepper, cinnamon and
bread were quite effective. Accordingly, scent was incorpo-
rated into the following comprehensive model in three
corresponding treatments ‘‘low’’, ‘‘moderate’’, and ‘‘high’’.
5.2. Comprehensive measurement model test
In keeping with the procedure recommended by Ander-
son and Gerbing (1988), a comprehensive measurement
model was estimated that included all constructs and
measures subsequently used in the testing of structural
relations (Steenkamp and Baumgartner, 2000). To evaluate
the effects, a confirmatory factor analysis was conducted
using AMOS 4.0 (Arbuckle and Wothke, 1999). Following
tradition, the scale of measurement for the constructs
was established by setting one of the factor loadings to a
default value of 1.0. The overall goodness-of-fit statistics
for this comprehensive measurement model were accepta-
ble: w(943) ¼ 1836.33, po.001; GFI ¼ .94, AGFI ¼ .91,
Bollen’s (1989) incremental fit index (IFI) ¼ .95.
Five of the six aggregated constructs used each had
average variance extracted (AVEs) equaling or exceeding
.50, indicating acceptable convergent validity. One excep-
tion was the three-item variety-seeking construct, which fell
just short of this conventional benchmark (AVE ¼ .47;
CCR ¼ .70). Because using a two-best item variety-seeking
scale raised the AVE to .71 and the CCR to .83, we choose
to use only the two strongest items from these three. In
addition, re-estimating our final structural models using
just the two-best items did not change any of the results. In
light of the preliminary factor analysis results, ‘‘zany’’ was
dropped from the sensation seeking state scale.
Discriminant validity among these latent constructs was
tested by examining if their pairwise correlations (adjusted
for measurement error) were each significantly different
from 1.0 (Anderson and Gerbing, 1988). None of these
correlations were greater than .68, and all were more than
three standard errors away from 1.0, indicating that they
were all significantly different from 1.0 at po.01.
5.3. Research findings
Hypotheses were tested through confirmatory factor
analysis (AMOS) estimates by specifying a recursive model
(see Fig. 1) in which ambient scent evoked nostalgic
memories which influenced consumer sensation seeking
states, which then influenced exploratory tendencies jointly
with the sensation seeking trait. A causal model estimating
‘‘all paths’’ had the following fit statistics: overall w(946) ¼
1490.14, po.001; GFI ¼ .96, AGFI ¼ .93; RMR ¼ .11;
RMSEA ¼ .07.
The standardized path coefficients of the all paths model
(Table 2, Column 3) show that the path between ambient
scent and evoked nostalgia was significant (.37, po.001),
hence confirming the basic assumption of this research that
ambient scent evokes nostalgic memories. In addition, the
path between evoked nostalgia and consumer sensation
seeking state was significant (.33, po.01), thus providing
support for H1.
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Table 2
Observed effects
Estimated path Hyp. Standardized path coefficients
All paths model Hypothesized paths
model
Scent-nostalgic memories À .37Ã .37Ã
Scent-sensation seeking state À À.06
Nostalgic memories-sensation seeking state H1 .34Ã .33Ã
Nostalgic memories-risk taking À .02
Nostalgic memories-variety seeking À .05
Nostalgic memories-curiosity-motivated behavior À .16
Sensation seeking state-risk taking H2a .18Ã .18Ã
Sensation seeking state-variety seeking H2b .15Ã .15Ã
Sensation seeking state-curiosity-motivated behavior H2c .29Ã .29Ã
Sensation seeking trait-risk taking H3a .43Ã .44Ã
Sensation seeking trait-variety seeking H3b .33Ã .32Ã
Sensation seeking trait-curiosity-motivated behavior H3c .25Ã .23Ã
Sensation seeking trait-sensation seeking state H4 .20Ã .20Ã
Ãpo.01

The non-hypothesized paths between scent and sensation
seeking state and between nostalgic memories and the
exploratory tendencies risk taking and variety-seeking were
not significant with p4.05. Unexpectedly, curiosity-moti-
vated behavior related positively to nostalgic memories
(.16, po.05). Paths between the sensation seeking state and
exploratory tendency constructs were significant for risk
taking (.18, po.05), variety-seeking (.15, po.05), and
curiosity-motivated behavior (.29, po.01). This finding is
in line with past research (i.e., Gierl et al., 1999), and
supports hypotheses H2a, H2b and H2c.
The paths between the sensation seeking trait and
consumer exploratory tendencies were significant for risk
taking (.43, po.01), variety seeking (.33, po.01), and
curiosity-motivated behavior (.25, po.01). Hypotheses
H3a, H3b, and H3c were thus supported.
Finally, there was a significant positive correlation
between the sensation seeking trait and state (.20, po.01),
with a magnitude similar to past studies (Zuckerman, 1979;
Gierl et al., 1999). We take this as support for H4.
Another model, with just the hypothesized paths, was
also estimated, and its results are shown in Column 4 of
Table 2. This ‘‘hypothesized paths only’’ model has fit
statistics slightly below those of the all paths model
(w(666) ¼ 1048.08, po.001; GFI ¼ .93, AGFI ¼ .91) with
standardized path coefficients very similar to the all paths
model.
6. Discussion
Following suggestions that the details of how nostalgic
memories work in the marketplace remain largely un-
known (Rindfleisch and Sprott 2000; Pascal et al.,
2002), this study took a first step by examining how
autobiographical nostalgic memories influence consumer
exploratory shopping behaviors. It could be argued that
conducting the study in a laboratory environment does not
provide insight about how nostalgic memories actually
work in retail settings. However, there appears to be
general acknowledgement that laboratory settings are
advantageous for generating initial knowledge extending
the literature in a manner that begins to address
implementation. After contrasting the option to exclude
potentially distorting factors against the need to conduct
the study in a realistic setting which is more difficult to
control, the current research adopted the perspective
that—in order to obtain meaningful insights in this
under-investigated area—controlling for potentially dis-
torting environmental factors takes precedence over the
need for realistic settings.
6.1. Managerial implications
We believe the findings are important for several
reasons. First, we provide the first study to test a
comprehensive framework including ambient scent, nos-
talgic memories, sensation seeking state and trait variables
and consumer exploratory tendencies. The results demon-
strate that scent does evoke nostalgic memories which in
turn affect consumer sensation seeking with downstream
effects on exploratory tendencies. Effects from nostalgic
memories on consumer emotional-motivational response
(their sensation seeking state), and from sensation seeking
on risk taking, variety seeking, and curiosity-motivated
behavior are significant while other effects, i.e. from
nostalgic memories on risk taking, and variety seeking
are not. These findings are in line with past suggestions
that, in addition to the personality trait, an individual’s
sensation seeking state is an important predictor of
exploratory behavior (Gierl et al., 1999). We also extend
past research reporting effects from related concepts such
as mood (Kahn and Isen, 1993; Leith and Baumeister,
1996; Raghunathan and Pham, 1999), arousal (Leith and
Baumeister, 1996; Mano, 1994) and feelings (Fessler et al.,
2004; Isen and Patrick, 1983; Mano, 1994; Menon and
Kahn, 1995). Additional evidence is generated emphasizing
the need for clearly distinguishing between those con-
structs, particularly between acute emotions and longer
lasting moods (Aaker et al., 1986). Because consumer
sensation seeking was found to affect exploratory tenden-
cies with a magnitude similar to the trait construct, more
attention needs to be given to the consumer states, in which
past studies collected data. The importance previously
granted to the personality trait in affecting exploratory
behavior may have been overstated and individual sensa-
tion seeking states need to be included for better
predictions of consumer exploratory tendencies.
By establishing the power of ambient scent to evoke
autobiographical memories, our study also adds a new
perspective to research in atmospherics. Past olfaction
research in retail settings has largely focused on scent
pleasantness as a driver of effects on consumer behavior
(e.g., Bone and Scholder, 1999; Chebat and Michon, 2003;
Mattila and Wirtz, 2001). Simultaneously, past research
reported that nostalgic memories, triggered by environ-
mental cues, generate emotional-motivational responses
(e.g., Baumgartner, 1992; Sujan et al., 1993). This research
suggests that there may be another route of how consumers
respond to ambient scent, namely through autographical
memories evoked by an odor, an option that has not been
considered before.
Our finding that scent triggers nostalgic memories has
never been confirmed before. We therefore provide new
empirical evidence to verify earlier accounts of anecdotal
evidence (Hirsch, 1992) or related to music (Baumgartner,
1992; Zhu and Meyers-Levy, 2005). Our findings supple-
ment the body of evidence that intangible stimuli such as
ambient scent can elicit describable and contextual
memories (Annett, 1996; Ehrlichman and Halpern, 1988;
Holak and Havlena, 1992), and that odors of nature as well
as man-made scents trigger nostalgic memories with
respondents (Hirsch, 1992).
The finding of a satisfactory performance of an extended
framework that includes consumer personality and state
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constructs has additional practical relevance: Unlike
personality traits, individual sensation seeking states are
more open to marketers’ influence. Marketers hence may
affect consumer exploratory tendencies by evoking nostal-
gic memories, for example, through the diffusion of scents
into a retail environment. They must be aware, however,
that such manipulations will be difficult to control due to
the highly individualistic nature of nostalgic cues and
nostalgia proneness (Holbrook, 1993).
6.2. Future research
Our research suggests several questions for future
inquiries. Due to past research verifying links between
behavioral tendencies and actual behavior (c.f. Baumgart-
ner and Steenkamp, 1996) our study examined consumer
exploratory tendencies but not actual behavior. Future
research therefore should examine effects of evoked
nostalgia on product-category specific exploratory beha-
vior, for example measured in terms of product attribute
weights or choice (Baumgartner and Steenkamp, 1996; Van
Trijp et al., 1996) or in some selection context (e.g., how
many products or brands one chooses to research). For
retailers, it might be particularly beneficial to know if there
is an effect on risky choice, for example between several
alternatives with the same outcome but different levels of
perceived risk (e.g., ‘‘certified organic’’ and ‘‘conventional’’
food), on variety seeking over time (e.g., choice of lunch
over several weeks) or on curiosity-motivated behavior
(e.g., choice of an informational leaflet or internet
promotional website). A focal area of investigation could
then be the likely differences or similarities for effects
between products or product categories, particularly due to
variance in product category involvement (Gierl et al.,
1999).
The finding of a significant direct effect of nostalgic
memories on curiosity-motivated behavior is unexpected.
Considering that this path was significant for cognitive but
not for sensory sensation seeking expressions (i.e., risk
taking, variety seeking) we take this as initial evidence that
differences may exist in how consumers process autobio-
graphical memories. These differences might be rooted in
differential neuropsychiatric memory retrieval mechanisms
(Ehrlichman and Halpern, 1988; Sujan et al., 1993). Such
an interpretation would be consistent with reports on
individual differences in the predisposition to process
autobiographical memories via the central of peripheral
route (Alpert and Alpert, 2004), and with studies on the
referential versus embodied meanings of environmental
stimuli (Zhu and Meyers-Levy, 2005). Future studies could
thus examine the nature of nostalgic triggers (i.e., sensory
versus cognitive cues), and specific feelings and thoughts
evoked by those nostalgic cues to disentangle the differ-
ential impact of autobiographical memories on cognitive
versus sensory sensation seeking.
It would also be helpful to relate the focus of this
study, autobiographical nostalgic memories, to the body of
research that emphasizes the role of nostalgia proneness as
an individual difference variable (Schindler and Holbrook,
2003). Integrating both research streams could start by
examining whether and how the personality trait (nostalgia
proneness) and the consumer state (evoked nostalgic
memories) interact in affecting consumer response. Speci-
fically, it appears to be promising to test a moderating role
of nostalgia proneness in relation to consumer emotional
responses and arousal. This way, more insight into effect
mechanisms of nostalgic memories could be obtained.
Finally, research on effects of evoked nostalgia in a
shopping context may be extended by examining in more
detail the suitability of different stimuli for eliciting
memories of the past. For example, will the effect paths
be identical for scent or music, tangible and intangible
stimuli? And what are potential synergistic or mutually
inhibitory effects of visual and auditory memory? In short,
more research is needed to provide further insights into
how nostalgic memories actually work in retail settings.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to thank Hans Baumgartner and Lynn
Kahle for their comments on an earlier version of this
paper. We also recognize the contribution of the anon-
ymous reviewers to improving this manuscript, and would
like to thank Mina McDaniel and Cindy Lederer for their
assistance in collecting the data. Financial support for this
research was provided in part by Bridgeview Inc. Inquiries
should be directed to the first author.
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