University paper on religion in early Europe

1. Power, Corruption and Salvation in Early Modern Europe
The role of the Church in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries was paramount to societal
life. Religion was included in every aspect of everyday living and the power executed by
the Church over the people extended to almost every aspect of daily life. The ideologies
of the Catholic doctrine were not only imposed on the people by the political leaders, but
also by the inability for the people to challenge those in power, due to educational and
economic disadvantages. The Church controlled much of the wealth during this early
period exercised that control through taxes, land leasing and business developments. It
was the relative power that was related to the Church and associated belief in God that
created a society hinged on religious beliefs. This essay will outline the power of the
Church in early modern Europe, and the way religious practices and beliefs were
significant to the members of society at that time. It will also highlight the role of the
sacraments in ordering life and the importance of ‘pilgrimage’ as a method for obtaining
favour with both the Church and society.
The rituals of religion gave the people a direction. In a society that was so segregated on
a class level, religion gave the masses a hope for a better eternity than what they were
experiencing on earth or more importantly, a way to stay out of Hell 1. The social
significance of Christian beliefs also gave those in power a way to control the people, and
brought the community together at a layman’s level. The religious nature of society
dictated the participation in a series of rites and rituals to ensure the attainment of one’s
place in heaven and one’s acceptance in the community. These rituals, sacraments, were
1
Norman Habel, Michael O’Donoghue and Marion Maddox. Myth, Ritual and the Sacred. (Adelaide: Texts
in Humanities, 1993) p. 55-70.

2. essential markers of one’s devotion to their faith, their country and their allegiance to
God, they structured the everyday life of the people, not only on a daily level, but also
across their lifespan2.
Life in early modern Europe was completely intertwined with religion 3. The power held
by the Catholic Church had the effect of a monopoly on how people lived their daily
lives4. The desire for redemption was pressing and the obtainment of eternal life was a
deep focus for early citizens. This desire for connection to God was enhanced by the
wealth of the church and the ability for those in the Church to exercise control over land,
money, taxes and the law. The influence of the church extended not only to the realm of
the spirit but also to the reality of life which included the daily economic functioning of
communities5. The culture of early modern Europe deemed it socially desired to have a
belief in God and a relationship with the Church. Those who were seen as devout were
praised as upstanding members of the community, while those who expressed less than
avid interest were socially ostracized, an event which in a community so dependent on
the exchange of goods and services, was devastating.
All aspects of religious faith, beliefs and behaviour were totally controlled and dictated
by the Church. Those in power determined that people must have a relationship with God
to be socially acceptable. To this end, all people had no choice but to enter into a
2
Ibid…p71-80.
3
Nicholas, Baker, Lecture 5: Sanctifying the World, Lecture accessed from Macquarie University, HST150
– Study materials: Resource MP3, 2010.
4
John Merriman. A History of Modern Europe: From Renaissance to the Present,2 nd Ed., (New York: W.W.
Norton & Co., 2004), p.6.
5
Ibid.., p.6-7.

3. relationship with the Church.6 As the majority of citizens in the early modern period were
illiterate the only method of learning about God and His rules and expectations for life
was to attend Church.7 The irony of this was that even though in attendance, the people
still could not understand the teachings as the sermons were conducted in Latin, as was
all other religious texts.8 This fact empowered the Church by allowing them to control
the access and dispersion religious information to whoever was deemed worthy of it and
withhold information from those considered unworthy. 9 It also allowed the Church to
deliver messages in whichever context they wished, mostly in ways which benefited the
institution. Part of these benefits was in terms of real estate. Churches generally owned
large estates, considerable tracts of land and assets and were entitled to payment of
taxation from citizens because of the important position they held within society 10.
Individuals did not have access to spiritual information without the church acting as an
interpreter and questioning the motives and functions of the Church was expressively
forbidden.11
In order to maintain their position of power the Church institution established established
a set of standardized rituals that all Christians were expected to participate in if they were
to please God, and achieve eternal life. 12 Perhaps the most common ritual was the Mass,
a weekly joining of the members of the community presided over by a priest or other
6
Ibid., p.7
7
Phyllis Mack & Margaret Jacob, Politics and Culture in Early Modern Europe, (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1987) , p.232, 253.
8
Baker, Lecture 5: Sanctifying the World, Lecture accessed from Macquarie University, HST150 – Study
materials: Resource MP3, 2010.
9
Mary, Mitchell & Frances, Young. The Cambridge History of Christianity. (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 2006), p.50.
10
Mack & Jacob, Politics and Culture in Early Modern Europe, (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1987), p.158-160.
11
Peter Rietbergen,. Europe: A Cultural History, 2nd Ed., (London: Routledge, 2006). p.172-175.
12
Ibid., p.172

4. member of the clergy. 13 The clergy conducted the ceremonies speaking only in Latin
with the parishioners responding with well-established and memorised responses. 14 The
role of the mass can be viewed as not just spiritual but also serving to bring people within
a community closer together under the benevolent guidance of the hierarchy of the
Church. Those who did not attend services or did not agree with the Church’s beliefs ran
the risk of being excommunicated. Being excommunicated had the effect of socially
isolating a person from their community and fellow citizens. 15 To be disconnected or
shunned by other members in the community was devastating for those in the fourteenth
and fifteenth centuries as a strong community standing was essential to obtaining a
prosperous existence. Excommunication could bring poverty, isolation or even death.
In addition to weekly attendance at Mass, the Church mandated that all people must
participate in the life rituals known as the seven sacraments. 16 The seven sacraments are
baptism, confirmation, marriage and extreme unction. These four sacraments are only
offered once in a lifetime.17 Penance and/or confession and communion were to be taken
once per year. For those who chose the path of priesthood was the last sacrament,
ordination.18 These sacraments provided social cohesion in the life of people within
communities.
13
John Bossy. “The Mass as a Social Institution 1200-1700”, Past and Present, no. 100, (1983), pp. 30.
14
Ibid., p.32.
15
Mitchell & Young. The Cambridge History of Christianity. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
2006) , p.70.
16
R. Scribner. “Ritual and Reformation’, Popular Culture and Popular Movements in Reformation
Germany, (London & Ronceverte, WV, 1987), pp. 106.
17
Mitchell & Young. The Cambridge History of Christianity. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
2006) p.25.
18
Ibid. 26.

5. Almost from birth people were introduced to religious rituals. Not long after birth
Christian babies are claimed by the church in the ritual of baptism. The ritual of baptism
also provided a social cohesive role19. The parents of the child to be baptized would
choose a god parent or parents for the child; when making a chose it was common to
choose someone that conducted business with or wished to form a business relationship.
To be given the role of god-parent was a position of honour and trust within early
European families. Religious ritual was often used as a tool to enhance business and
political advantage and choosing god-parents on this association was a common
practice.20
The second sacrament is Confirmation and is the second in the rituals of Christian
initiation. In this ceremony one confirms their baptismal grace and must be completed
before one participates in the sacrament of Eucharist, or the accepting of communion.
These three initiation rites are essential to the foundations of Catholic life, as without
these initiations, one cannot receive penance, and so risks eternal damnation. 21
The sacrament of Matrimony that today is seen as two people uniting in a common bond
of love was not viewed in the same way in medieval times 22. During the 14th and 15th
19
Mitchel & Young. The Cambridge History of Christianity. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
2006), pp.160–161.
20
Trexler, Richard. “The Florentine Religious Experience: The Sacred Image”. Studies in the
Renaissance no. 19, (1972) p.9.
21
Habel, 0’Donoghue and Maddox. Myth, Ritual and the Sacred.(Texts in Humanities, 1993). Pp. 71-80.
22
Rietbergen,. Europe: A Cultural History, 2nd Ed., (London: Routledge, 2006). p.178-79.

6. centuries in Europe wealthy nobles would marry for a variety of reasons 23. Some of these
reasons were to create and maintain a peace after a war with an enemy, for financial gain
by the gift of a large dowry or for social advancement. In regards to the lower classes,
marriage often provided a sense of social stability or even advancement24.
Even when someone was unable to attend church there were circumstances that the
sacrament would be conferred upon them. One such circumstance is when a member of
the Christian faith is in danger of dying25. This sacrament is referred to as extreme
unction. This sacrament can only be administered by a priest or bishop as it involves the
final chance for a person to be forgiven of all earthly sins. This sacrament also provided
a Christian with the necessary social preparation near the end of their life and was a very
public event with family members, friends and neighbours often in attendance to attest to
its deliverance26. Death was not supposed to be a solitary event but instead was a treated
as public spectacle that involved the whole town 27. The correct administering of the
sacraments was not only spiritual of significance but also social importance.
One sacrament that was delivered more that once in a person life was Penance or
reconciliation. This involves reconciliation with God after sin has been committed 28.
23
Wrigley, E.A. & Schofield, R.S. “The population history of England 1541-1871: A review symposium”
Social History, no. 8:2, (1983), p.144.
24
Ibid., p177-8.
25
Mitchel & Young. The Cambridge History of Christianity. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
2006) pp. 195.
26
Nicholas Baker. “Lecture 6: Death, Sin, and Salvation”, Lecture accessed from Macquarie University,
HST150 – Study materials: Resource MP3, 2010.
27
Ibid.
28
Merry Wiesner-Hanks. Cambridge History of Europe: Early Modern Europe 1450-1789,

7. This reconciliation has four states. The first stage is contrition in which the penitent
expresses their sin and repentance for it. Secondly, the penitent must have confession to
a priest as only a priest has the necessary power to conduct the sacrament and provide
absolution as the instrument of God in the earthly realm. Thirdly, the sinner would
receive absolution from the Priest which would then carry to the final stage of Penance 29.
The Penance could take the effect of prayers, necessary actions to be carried out or in
some circumstance a pilgrimage to fully absolve the sin. Through having the power to
absolve sin the Church dominated the lives of the people, and no-one challenged those in
Church power as they were seen as the executors of God’s will. This in itself caused
many problems with abuse of Church power.
The importance of a pilgrimage for early Christians in terms of connecting with the
sacred was not only a religious exclamation of faith but also a declaration of wealth,
social standing or acceptance. Those in positions of wealth used pilgrimage as a way to
increase their standing in society and on the far end of this, those who were living in
poverty would use pilgrimage as a way to show their absolute dedication to God in the
hope of winning His favour in life and in death30.
A pilgrimage generally involves a lengthy journey to a shrine or place of great religious
significance31. In the Christian faith, important destinations for pilgrimages were to
location associated with the birth and death of Jesus Christ. The Holy Land provided
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006). p.380
29
Ibid. p.16.
30
Habel, 0’Donoghue and Maddox. Myth, Ritual and the Sacred.(Texts in Humanities, 1993). Pp. 91
31
Merry Wiesner-Hanks. Cambridge History of Europe: Early Modern Europe 1450-1789,
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006). p.380.

8. many suitable locations for pilgrims to journey to such as Jerusalem, Bethlehem and
Nazareth and the Sea of Galilee 32. Also throughout Europe were many sites that were
associated with saints and contained relics that would be suitable for a pilgrimage 33. The
completion of the long, arduous and often dangerous journey provided the pilgrim with
the necessary process of achieving penance34. Pilgrimage also held the important position
of connecting the community. Those on a pilgrimage together often formed close bonds
that remained in place even once they had returned to daily life. These strengthened
connections served not only to solidify the bonds of community members, but also their
place within the Church35.
In conclusion, this essay has outlined the various religious beliefs and practice that were
important aspects of daily life in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries in Europe. In order
to solidify their power over the people, the economy and the law the Church formulated a
standardized religious practice in which all good Christians were expected to participate
in in order to remain in good favour with the community. These practices guided life
from birth to death by way of sacraments and were non-negotiable if one wanted to
achieve a good standing. They empowered the Church as the sole deliverer of religious
guidance as well as served to form strong social bonds within the community, an
32
Simon Coleman & John Elsner. Pilgrimage: Past and Present in the World Religions. (Cambridge: Harvard
University Press, 1995). p.20.
33
Charles Zika. “Hosts, processions, pilgrimages: Controlling the sacred in fifteenth-century Germany”,
Past and Present, no 118: February, (1988), p.49.
34
Ibid., p.62-64.
35
Habel, 0’Donoghue and Maddox. Myth, Ritual and the Sacred.(Texts in Humanities, 1993). Pp. 91

9. essential factor in the determination of worth and the acquisition of wealth on which daily
living depended.

10. Bibliography
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Bossy, John. “The Mass as a Social Institution 1200-1700”, Past and Present 100
(1983)
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Coleman, Simon & Elsner, John. Pilgrimage: Past and Present in the World
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Sacred. Adelaide: Texts in Humanities. 1993.
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Merriman, John. A History of Modern Europe: From Renaissance to the Present,
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11. Mitchell, Mary and Young, Frances. The Cambridge History of
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Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006.
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12. Zika, Charles. “Hosts, processions, pilgrimages: Controlling the sacred in fifteenth-
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http://www.jstor.org/stable/650830: pp.25-64