The document discusses various theories of motivation. It begins by defining motivation as the psychological forces that determine a person's behavior, effort level, and persistence. It then covers several content theories of motivation, including Maslow's hierarchy of needs, Herzberg's two-factor theory, and ERG theory, which all examine how unsatisfied needs can motivate behavior. It also discusses McClelland's needs for achievement, affiliation, and power. Next, it covers process theories, including equity theory, expectancy theory, goal setting theory, and learning theories such as operant conditioning and social learning theory. The document provides an overview of key concepts from each theory to explain what motivates employee behavior in organizations.

1. Motivation
• Motivation
– The psychological forces that determine the
direction of a person’s behavior in an
organization, a person’s level of effort, and
a person’s level of persistence
– Explains why people behave the way they
do in organizations
13-1

2. The Nature of Motivation
• Motivation is a psychological process
through which unsatisfied wants or
needs lead to drives that are aimed at
goals or incentives.
13-2

3. The Nature of Motivation
• Direction - possible behaviors the
individual could engage in
• Effort - how hard the individual will work
• Persistence - whether the individual will
keep trying or give up
13-3

4. Question?
What behavior is performed for its own
sake?
A. Intrinsically Motivated Behavior
B. Extrinsically Motivated Behavior
13-4

5. The Nature of Motivation
• Intrinsically Motivated Behavior
– Behavior that is performed for its own sake.
• The source of the motivation that comes
from actually performing the behavior.
• The sense of accomplishment and
achievement
derived from
doing the work
itself
13-5

6. The Nature of Motivation
• Extrinsically Motivated Behavior
– Behavior that is performed to acquire
material or social rewards or to avoid
punishment.
• The source of the motivation is the
consequences of the behavior and not
the behavior itself.
13-6

7. Outcomes and Inputs
• Outcome
– Anything a person gets from a job or an
organization
• Pay, job security, autonomy,
accomplishment
• Input
– Anything a person contributes to his or her
job or organization
• Time, effort, skills, knowledge, work
behaviors
13-7

8. The Motivation Equation
Figure 13.1
13-8

9. 16.1 A Simple Model of Motivation
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10. Motivation
• Earlier Theories of Motivation
1. Scientific Management
2. Human relation models
Contemporary theories
1. Content theories
2. Process theories
13-10

11. Content theories
• Maslow theory
• Herzberg theory
• ERG theory
• Achievement motivation theory
13-11

12. Process theories
• Goal setting theory
• Vroom ‘s expectancy theory
• Adam’s equity theory
• Porter’s performance model
13-12

13. Content Theories of Motivation
Emphasize the needs that motivate people
Hierarchy of Needs Theory
 ERG Theory
 Two-Factor Theory
 Acquired Needs Theory
13-13

14. Need Theories
• Need • Need Theories
– A requirement or – People are
necessity for motivated to
survival and well- obtain outcomes
being. at work that will
satisfy their needs
13-14

15. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs by
Abraham Harold Maslow
Needs Description Examples
Highest-level
Self-
Self- Realize one’s
Realize one’s Use abilities
Use abilities
needs
actualization
actualization full potential
full potential to the fullest
to the fullest
Feel good
Feel good Promotions
Promotions
Esteem
Esteem about oneself
about oneself and recognition
and recognition
Social
Social Interpersonal
Interpersonal
Belongingness
Belongingness interaction, love
interaction, love relations, parties
relations, parties
Job security,
Job security,
Safety
Safety Security, stability
Security, stability health insurance
health insurance
Lowest-level Food, water,
Food, water, Basic pay level
Basic pay level
Physiological
Physiological
needs shelter
shelter to buy items
to buy items
Lower-level needs must be satisfied
before higher-level needs are addressed.
Table 13.1
13-15

16. Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory
by Frederik Herzberg
• Focuses on outcomes that lead to higher
motivation and job satisfaction, and
those outcomes that can prevent
dissatisfaction.
• Unsatisfied hygiene needs create
dissatisfaction; satisfaction of hygiene
needs does not lead to motivation or job
satisfaction.
13-16

17. 16.4 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Copyright ©2012 by South-Western, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. 13-17 17

18. Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory
• Motivator needs relate to the nature of
the work itself—autonomy, responsibility,
interesting work.
• Hygiene needs are related to the
physical and psychological context of the
work—comfortable work environment,
pay, job security.
13-18

19. Maslow Vs. Herzberg
Maslow’s hierarchy Herzberg’s two-factor theory
Motivators
Self-actualization Achievement
Recognition
Responsibility
Esteem Advancement - training
The work itself
Social Hygiene Factors
Salary
Safety Technical supervision
Company policies
Interpersonal relations
Physiological Working conditions
13-19

20. Alderfer’s ERG Theory
Needs Description Examples
Highest-level
needs Self-development,
Self-development, Continually
Continually
Growth
Growth creative work improve skills
creative work improve skills
Interpersonal
Interpersonal Good relations,
Good relations,
Relatedness
Relatedness relations, feelings accurate feedback
relations, feelings accurate feedback
Food, water,
Food, water, Adequate pay
Adequate pay
Lowest-level Existence
Existence clothing, and shelter for necessities
clothing, and shelter for necessities
needs
After lower level needs satisfied, person seeks higher needs. When
unable to satisfy higher needs, lower needs motivation is raised.
Table 13.2
13-20

21. Alderfer’s ERG Theory
• As lower level needs become satisfied, a
person seeks to satisfy higher-level
needs
• A person can be motivated by needs at
more than one level at the same time
• When people experience need
frustration they will focus on satisfying
the needs at the next-lowest level
13-21

22. McClelland’s Needs for Achievement,
Affiliation, and Power
• Need for Achievement
– A strong need to perform challenging
tasks well and meet personal
standards for excellence
13-22

23. McClelland’s Needs for Achievement,
Affiliation, and Power
• Need for Affiliation
– Concerned about establishing and
maintaining good interpersonal relations,
being liked, and having the people around
him get along with each other
• Need for Power
– A desire to control or influence others
13-23

24. Equity Theory
• Equity Theory
– Focuses on people’s perceptions of the
fairness (or lack of fairness) of their work
outcomes in
proportion to
their work inputs.
13-24

25. Equity Theory
• A relative outcome to input ratio
comparison to oneself or to another
person (referent) perceived as similar to
oneself.
• Equity exists when a person perceives
that their outcome/input ratio to be equal
to the referent’s ratio.
– If the referent receives more outcomes, they
should also give more inputs to achieve
equity.
13-25

26. Equity Theory
Condition Person Referent Example
Worker contributes
Worker contributes
Outcomes == Outcomes
Outcomes Outcomes more inputs but also
more inputs but also
Equity
Equity Inputs Inputs gets more outputs
Inputs Inputs gets more outputs
than referent
than referent
Worker contributes
Worker contributes
Underpayment
Underpayment Outcomes << Outcomes
Outcomes Outcomes more inputs but also
more inputs but also
Equity Inputs
Inputs Inputs
Inputs gets the same outputs
gets the same outputs
Equity
as referent
as referent
Worker contributes
Worker contributes
Overpayment
Overpayment Outcomes >> Outcomes
Outcomes Outcomes same inputs but also
same inputs but also
Equity Inputs
Inputs Inputs
Inputs gets more outputs
gets more outputs
Equity
than referent
than referent
Table 13.3
13-26

27. Equity Theory
• Inequity exists when worker’s outcome/input
ratio is not equal to referent.
– Underpayment inequity: ratio is less than the
referent.
• Workers feel they are not getting the outcomes
they should for their inputs.
– Overpayment inequity: ratio is higher than the
referent.
• Workers feel they are getting more outcomes
than they should for their inputs.
13-27

28. Equity Theory
• Restoring Equity: Inequity creates tension in
workers causing them to attempt to restore
equity.
– In underpayment, workers may reduce input levels
to correct (rebalance) the ratio or seek a raise.
– In overpayment, workers may change the referent
person and readjust their ratio perception.
– If inequity persists, workers will often choose to
leave the organization.
13-28

29. Expectancy Theory
Motivation will be high when
workers believe:
– High levels of effort will
lead to high performance.
– High performance
will lead to the
attainment of
desired outcomes.
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30. Expectancy Theory
• Motivation depends on individuals’
expectations about their ability to perform
tasks and receive desired rewards
• E – P: putting effort into a given task will
lead to high performance
• P – O: successful performance of a task
will lead to the desired outcome
• Valence – the value or attraction an
individual has for an outcome
Copyright ©2012 by South-Western, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. 13-30 30

31. Expectancy, Instrumentality, and Valence
Figure 13.2
13-31

32. Expectancy Theory
Figure 13.3
13-32

33. Goal Setting Theory
• Focuses on motivating workers to
contribute their inputs to their jobs and
organizations
• Considers how managers can ensure
that workers focus their inputs in the
direction of high performance and the
achievement of organizational goals.
13-33

34. Goal Setting Theory
• Goal
– What a person is trying to accomplish
through his efforts and behaviors
– Must be specific and difficult
• Goals point out what is important to the
firm.
– Workers should be encouraged to develop
action plans to attain goals.
13-34

35. Goal Setting Theory
• Goals motivate
people to contribute
more inputs to their
jobs
• Goals help people
focus their inputs in
the right direction
13-35

36. Learning Theories
• Managers can increase employee
motivation and performance by the ways
they link the outcomes that employees
receive to the performance of desired
behaviors in an organization and the
attainment of goals
13-36

37. Learning Theories
• Learning
– A relatively permanent change in person’s
knowledge or behavior that results from
practice or experience.
13-37

38. Social Learning Theory
Individual’s motivation can result from thoughts,
beliefs, and observations
– Vicarious learning – observational learning from
seeing others’ behaviors and rewards
– Self-reinforcement – motivating yourself by
reaching goals and providing positive
reinforcement for yourself
– Self-efficacy – belief about your own ability to
accomplish tasks
Copyright ©2012 by South-Western, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. 13-38 38

39. Operant Conditioning Theory
• Operant Conditioning
– People learn to perform behaviors that lead
to desired consequences and learn not to
perform behaviors that lead to undesired
consequences.
– Linking specific behaviors to the attainment
of specific outcomes can motivate high
performance and prevent behaviors that
detract from organizational effectiveness.
13-39

40. Question?
Which operant conditioning tool
administers an undesired consequence
to immediately stop a dysfunctional
behavior?
A. Positive reinforcement
B. Negative reinforcement
C. Extinction
D. Punishment
13-40

41. Operant Conditioning Tools
• Positive Reinforcement
– Gives people outcomes they desire when
they perform organizationally functionally
behaviors
• Positive reinforcers: Pay, praises, or
promotions
13-41

42. Operant Conditioning Tools
• Negative Reinforcement
– Eliminating undesired outcomes once the
functional behavior occurs
• Negative reinforcers: criticisms, pay cuts,
suspension
13-42

43. Operant Conditioning Tools
• Extinction
– Curtailing the performance of a dysfunctional
behavior by eliminating whatever is
reinforcing it.
• Punishment
– Administering an undesired/negative
consequence to immediately stop a
dysfunctional behavior.
• Manager administers an undesired consequence
to worker (verbal reprimand, demotion, pay cut).
13-43

44. Avoiding Side Effects of Punishment
• Downplay the emotional element
involved
• Try to punish dysfunctional behaviors as
soon as they occur
• Try to avoid punishing someone in front
of others
13-44

45. Organizational Behavior Modification
• Organizational Behavior Modification
– Managers systematically apply operant
conditioning techniques to promote the
performance of organizationally functional
behaviors and discourage the performance
of dysfunctional behaviors
13-45

46. Organizational Behavior Modification
• Used to improve productivity, efficiency,
attendance, punctuality, safe work
practices, and customer service
• Sometimes questioned because of lack
of relevance to certain work behaviors
• To critics it is overly controlling and robs
workers of their dignity, individuality,
freedom of choice and creativity
13-46

47. Steps in
Organizational
Behavior
Modification
Figure 13.4
13-47

48. Social Learning Theory
• Social Learning Theory
– Proposes that motivation results not only
from direct experience of rewards and
punishments but also from a person’s
thoughts and beliefs
13-48

49. Social Learning Theory
• Vicarious Learning (Observational
Learning)
– Occurs when a person becomes motivated
to perform a behavior by watching another
person perform the behavior and be
positively reinforced for doing so
13-49

50. Social Learning Theory
• Self-Reinforcement
– Any desired or attractive outcome or award
that a person can give himself or herself for
good performance.
• Self-efficacy
– A person’s belief about his or her ability to
perform a behavior successfully.
13-50

51. Empowering People
to Meet Higher Needs
Four Empowering Elements
 Information - Employees receive
information about company
performance
 Knowledge - Employees have
knowledge and skills to contribute to
company goals
 Power - Employees have the power
to make substantive decisions
 Rewards - Employees are rewarded
13-51

52. A Continuum of Empowerment
Exhibit 19.11
Sources: Based on Robert C.
Ford and Myron D. Fottler,
“Empowerment: A Matter of
Degree,” Academy of
Management Executive 9, no.
3 (1995), 21-31; Lawrence
Holpp, “Applied
Empowerment,” Training
(February 1994), 39-44; and
David P. McCaffrey, Sue R.
Faerman, and David W. Hart,
“”The Appeal and Difficulties
of Participative Systems,”
Organization Science 6, no. 6
(November-December 1995),
603-627.
13-52

53. Giving Meaning to Work
• To meet higher-level motivational
needs and help people get intrinsic
rewards from their work is to instill a
sense of importance and
meaningfulness
13-53