This paper presents suggestions for an exploratory approach to understanding cybercrime that we call “cybercartography” using a set of tools that have not been frequently applied to this domain. We refer to 1) fifty-plus years of experience by scientists and governments in integrating socioeconomic and political data organized by administrative boundaries with satellite raster and global gridded global data sets 2) gridded global models 3) global event data sets 4) centuries of experience with the art and science of cartography. To make this less abstract, consider the broad generalization that most current generation cyberthreat maps involve lots of blinking dots and network graphs superimposed over an outline or “blue marble” view of the world. Then compare some of the cartographic techniques that are often used to map other knowledge domains—for example, National Geographic-style cartography, high-resolution administrative boundary maps produced using the US census, and gridded global data sets. A deeper level of insight into the world of cybercrime can be gained in combining the standard cyberthreat network analyses with place-specific variables which can lead to greater insights into who the cybercriminals are, what makes a particular region fertile ground for these activities, why some regions are less susceptible to developing cybercriminals, and where new criminal activities are likely to spring-up and flourish. These different approaches are not superior to one another, but they can be complementary.

1. “Cybercartography” – Applying Global Mapping Techniques toUnderstanding
Cybercrime
Cybercrime inall itsdimensions,includingitsrelationshipwithnation-states,enterprises,transnational
organizedcrime,andprivacyrights,hasbecome anincreasinglyseriousprobleminrecentyears.The
highpriorityof respondingeffectivelytocybercrime hasbeenreaffirmedbynumerousgovernmental,
business,andcitizenstatements. (Obama,2015)
Many soundtechniquestopreventandmitigate harmfromcybercrime have beenrecommended by
responsible organizationssuchasthe OpenWebApplicationSecurityProject(OWASP)andthe US
ComputerEmergencyResponseTeam(US-CERT),aswell assoftware companiesandopensource
organizations,andeffortstoimprove cybersecurityare ongoingthroughthe world. Yetgapsand
vulnerabilitiespersist. Concernishigh:Admiral Michael Rogers,commanderof the U.S.Cyber
Commandand National SecurityAgencydirector,toldthe House PermanentSelectCommittee on
IntelligenceonNov.202014 that the failure torespondwouldleadtoinfrastructure attacksthatare
"trulydestructive." (PermanentHouse SelectCommitteeonIntelligence,2014)Thishasresultedin
demandfornovel methods (Intelligence AdvancedResearchProjectsAgency,2015)
Cybercartography
Thispaperpresentssuggestionsforanexploratoryapproachtounderstandingcybercrime thatwe call
“cybercartography”usinga setof toolsthathave not beenfrequentlyappliedtothisdomain. We refer
to 1) fifty-plusyearsof experience byscientistsandgovernmentsinintegratingsocioeconomicand
political dataorganizedbyadministrativeboundaries withsatelliterasterandglobal griddedglobaldata
sets2) griddedglobal models3) global eventdatasets 4) centuriesof experience withthe artand
science of cartography.To make thislessabstract,considerthe broadgeneralizationthatmostcurrent
generationcyberthreatmapsinvolvelotsof blinkingdotsandnetworkgraphssuperimposedoveran
outline or“blue marble”viewof the world. Thencompare some of the cartographictechniquesthatare
oftenusedtomap otherknowledge domains—forexample, NationalGeographic-stylecartography,
high-resolutionadministrativeboundarymapsproducedusingthe UScensus,andgriddedglobal data
sets. A deeperlevel of insightintothe worldof cybercrime canbe gainedincombiningthe standard
cyberthreatnetworkanalyseswithplace-specificvariableswhichcanleadtogreaterinsightsintowho
the cybercriminalsare,whatmakesaparticularregionfertile ground forthese activities,whysome
regionsare lesssusceptible todevelopingcybercriminals,andwhere new criminalactivitiesare likelyto
spring-upandflourish. Thesedifferentapproachesare notsuperiortoone another,buttheycanbe
complementary.

2. Figure 1. Left to right: Real-time cyberthreat map (animated) (Norse, 2015); award-winning map of the United States (Imus,
2012); “hard to count” indicator for Census tracts in New York generated using 12 variables (Donnelly, 2010); and Gridded
Population of the World composed of 399,381 administrative boundary units;West Africa is shown (Center for International
Earth Science Information Network, CIAT, & Columbia University, 2005).
Currentmappingof cybercrime seemstobe focusedonreal-timemappingof eventsand technical
attributessuchas IP,port, andsignature. These methodsare well suitedtoseveral fundamental
attributesof the cyberrealm:1) it isa structured networkof networksthatare significantlyindependent
of physical andadministrative boundaries;2) attacksoccur in veryhigh volumesandata microsecond
tempo;3) identificationandattributionof attackersandattack vectorsischallenging;and4) the physical
locationof attackersgenerallydoesnotconstraintheirabilitytolaunchattacks. Butthese fundamentals
are notabsolutes,andcurrentmethodsare part of a systemthatneedsimprovementtomeetits
mission.
Anothersetof issuesarises fromthinkingaboutthe nature of differenttypesof data (asopposedtothe
nature of the realm). Cyberdata is present-focusedandcollectioncanbe close tocomplete, whereas
socioeconomicandpolitical dataare usuallyeitherretrospective orprospective andare usually
characterizedbymanygaps and uncertainties. Retrospective socioeconomicdataare oftensparse with
regardto time and administrative coverage andinconsistentlygathered—forexample,everynation
collectscensusdatainits ownway,oftenona differentschedule thanitspeers,withwidelyvarying
levelsof depthandsophistication. Bythe same token,prospectivedataare,simplyput,projections
whose accuracy has yetto be confirmed. Bythese standards,cyberdata manyadvantages,notleastits
availability andscalability. Yet socioeconomicandpolitical datagatheringisaimedatunderstanding
the human elementof problems, whichisjustasintegral asthe technical elementto“wickedproblems”
such as cybersecuritythatare highlycomplexandresistant tounderstandingandresolution (Buchanan,
1992; Chang,2013; Churchman,1967). Human-focuseddatacan shedlightonintentions,motivations,
and capabilitiesof attackers,illuminatedbytheirsocioeconomiccontext. Similarly,suchdatacan
provide insightintothe extent,nature,andvulnerabilityof humantargetsincontext.
Global Toolkits
We turnnow to a brief discussionof how global socioeconomicandpolitical datahave beenusedin
conjunctionwithglobal datasetsfromphysical andtechnical domains,global eventdata,andglobal
models— togetherconstitutinga“global toolkit”forunderstandingandmanaging global strategicrisks.
Keylandmarksinthe historyof global datasetsinclude programssuchas the CIA’sCORONA program,
LANDSAT,andNASA’SMissiontoPlanetEarth(the Earth ObservingSystem, orEOS),all of whichhave
yieldedimportantresultsinconjunctionwiththe USgovernment’sfundingof socioeconomicand

3. political datasetsdesignedtocomplementthese satellitecollections.Forexample,CORONA produceda
transformative understandingof the militarycapacitiesof foreignnations,and,wheneventually
declassifiedin1995, proveda vital resource forunderstandinghistorical landuse change and
archaeology.LANDSAThasbeencrucial tonational andinternational assessmentsof currentlanduse
change,desertification,andfoodsecurity. Mission toPlanetEarth (MTPE) has beenvital to
understandingthe pace anddegree of anthropogenicclimate change andinformingthe international
community’sresponse. Inresponse tocallstodemonstrate the social payoffof MTPE,NASA createda
SocioeconomicDataandApplicationsCenter(SEDAC) thathasmade a numberof important
contributions,suchasthe creationof global griddedpopulationdatasets. Robustinternational and
national scientificandpolicyecosystemsincludinggovernment,science,business,andnonprofit
organizationshave sprunguparoundCorona,LANDSAT,MTPE, and manyotherglobal observing
missions. Muchof the value fromthese federalinvestmentshasbeengeneratedbyintegratingglobal
physical andtechnical observationswithglobal administrativeandgriddeddatasets,global eventsdata,
and global models.
Some representative global socioeconomicdatasetsthatmay shedlightonprecursorsto andeffectsof
cybercrime are providedinTable 1and discussedinthe followingtwoparagraphs. Because of the
availabilityof global datasets,amore detailed,statisticallybasedpicture of the cybercriminal can
emerge. Areaswithpoorgovernance are abreedinggroundfortransnational criminalactivity,asare
areas thatare physicallyremote,whichcanbe visualizedathigherresolutionusingglobal mapsof
accessibility. (Keefe,2013; Uchiga & Nelson,2009)
Figure 2. From left to right: inset from remoteness map of the world using travel time cost (Uchiga & Nelson, 2009); output
from the GCAM global gridded climate assessment model showing projected land use change at 1 km grid size (West, Le Page,
Huang, Wolf, & Thomson, 2014); global model predicting areas at high cholera risk (Struck, 2011)
The World Bankand nonprofitorganizationsprovidenational-scale dataongovernance efficacy,
transparency,andcorruption. While cybercrime doesnotrequire highlevelsof skill,educationisa
significantcomponentof national cybercapability.UNESCOhasthe mostcomprehensive global data
regardingeducationandliteracy.Basicdemographicandeconomicconditionssuchasthe prevalence of
15-24 year-oldunder-employedmalescreate apool of potential offenders. (Ojedokun&Eraye,2012)
Social trustbehaviorsexhibitsignificantgeospatial variationinbothintensityandnature—compare trust
inpublicsystems(“social capital”) v.trustintribal,familyororganizedcrime networks (Collins&
Mansell,2004; Johnson& Mislin,2012; WorldValuesSurveyAssociation,2008) Data available from
online social networkscan be usedto model the identityattributesassociatedwithcurrentand

4. prospective cybercriminality (Fedushko&Bardyn,2013) While social networkdatahave the individual
as the fundamental unitof analysis,such datacan be aggregatedspatiallyandtemporallytothe same
resolutionassocioeconomicdatathatare basedonadministrative boundariesandgathered
periodically.
Global socioeconomicdatamay alsohelpunderstandvulnerabilitytoandimpactsof cybercrime.NASA
and the Departmentof Energy,respectively,fundedthe twomajorgriddedglobal populationdatasets,
the GriddedPopulationof the World(GPW) andLandScan,throughthe EOSSocieoconomicDataand
ApplicationsCenter(SEDAC) andOakRidge National Laboratory(ORNL). These datasetsare the most
significanttoolsavailable forprovidinggeospatially-explicitpopulationaffectedinformationonaglobal
basis. Theyhave beneficial differencesforhazardassessmentinthatGPWdistributesambient
populationtoresidencesinproportiontoadministrative boundariesatnighttime,whereasLandScan
distributespopulationalongroadwaysatnoon. Griddedpopulationdatacomplementsinfrastructure
data by enablingcalculationof affectedpopulationwithinafootprintof the targetedinfrastructure.
Addedprecisionisfeasible whenusing tract- orcounty-level dataforpopulation,socialcharacteristics,
and economicactivity;suchdataare available frommanydeveloped-nationcensusbureaus.
Many ingeniousmethods(withvaryinglevelsof reliability) have beenappliedtothe DMSPNightLights
data setas proxiesforaspectsof global economicandsocial activity (NOAA,2015). Existingdatasets
assessingvulnerabilitytomultiple natural hazards (Dilleyetal.,2005) may be importantfor
understandingthe potentiallydevastatingimpactof acyberattackthat accompaniesorfollowsanatural
disaster.Conversely,cybersecuritydatathatsupportsgeospatial inferencescanalsobe valuable;for
example,OWASP’sTop10 Risksmapsrisksto industries,andindustriescanbe locatedgeospatiallyusing
data such as the U.S. CensusBureau’sOccupational EmploymentStatistics(OES),makingitpossibleto
generate ageospatial footprintforotherwiseabstractcyberriskssuchas SQL injection. (Bureauof Labor
Statistics,2013; OpenWebApplicationSecurityProject,2013)
It isimportantto emphasize thatbothadministrativeboundaryandgridded globaldatasetsare often
created in response tomissionneeds. It can be (andusuallyis) labor-intensive tocreate administrative
data sets. The UnitedStatesgovernmentrecognizes195 independentstates (Office of the Geographer
and Global Issues,Bureauof Intelligence andResearch,&U.S.Departmentof State,2015) whichmeans
that creatinga complete newnational-scale datasetrequiresrepeatinganovel process atleast195
times,oftendealingwithinconsistentorunavailabledata. Forexample,creatingaglobal GISof
populationdataforone particularethnicityinvolvinghandinspectingprintedcensusdataforall the
countriesinthe world,a laborioustaskthatwasrequiredbecause mostcensusbureausonlymake a
subsetof theirinformationavailable online andresearch-intensive because nosinglelibraryinthe world
has a complete collectionof all publishedcensuses (ISciencesLLC,MDA Federal,&General Dynamics,
2006).
Careful attentiontoadministrativeboundarydataisimportant. Inthe contextof cybercrime every
networkdependsonphysical connectionsandeveryattackerhasa physical location,andafundamental
attribute of the worldorderis thateveryphysical location“belongs”to a nestedseriesof administrative
unitswiththe nation-state atthe top;2) political mapping techniquesare designedtobe effective at

5. summarizinglarge volumesof information;3) aggregate analysismayenable focusonthe evolving
structure of the problemratherthanthe arbitrary details; 4) all thingsbeingequal,administrative
control overa territory doesmake iteasiertoidentifyandneutralizeattackers.(Inaddition,it’sworth
notingthat inthe internetworld,Administrative Domainsare fixedinterconnectionsbetweendomains
that are jointlymanaged,whichhave ageographicmappingcapability.)
Creatingnewglobal griddeddatasetsisalsochallengingandlabor-intensive. Simplifyingconsiderably,
the effortusuallyrequiresdevelopingsome sortof algorithmtoallocate knownorestimatedentitiesto
gridcells;suchalgorithmsmustbe designed,iteratedandvalidated.Differentorganizationshave
differentlevelsof CapabilityMaturityModel Integration (Paulk,1993) interms of creatinggriddedglobal
data sets. For example,NASA hasarelativelymature processthatinvolvescreatinganAlgorithm
Theoretical BasisDocument(ATBD) foreveryderivedproductfromsensorssuchasMODIS. Individual
science researchprojectsare likelytooperate ata lowerCMMI.
Finally,global administrative andgriddeddatasets oftenneedtobe integrated sothatpolicymakers
can make operationallyusefuldecisions. Thisrequiresassigninggridcellstoadministrativeunits,and
generallyinvolvesalgorithmdevelopment.
Table 1. Representative global data sets and models
Name Source Comments
Gridded Population of the
World
CIESIN Distributes ambientpopulation to residences (night
time)
LandScan Oak Ridge National
Laboratory
Distributes ambientpopulation alongroads (day time)
CARMA power plants CARMA All power plants in world by lat/long
Global Education and Literacy
databases
UNESCO Most complete national coverage
Governance World Bank Synthetic indicator created from several variables
Night Lights DMSP Used as proxy for many economic and social activities
Multi-hazard mortality and
economic vulnerability
CIESIN, World Bank,
IBRD
Integrated vulnerability to natural disasters
Global ChangeAssessment
Model
University of Maryland Integrated assessmentof future climatechange
includingboth climateand economic modeling
HealthMap Boston Children’s
Hospital
Epidemic detection and monitoring
Global ethnicity data set ISciences/MDA GIS at lowest availableadministrativeunitper country

6. Federal
ICEWS DARPA Event detection esp. conflict
Griddedglobal datasetsare a prerequisite tomanytypesof global modelingandintegratedassessment
that work,inessence,bysimulatingflowsthroughgridcellsandevaluatingthe instantandultimate
state of those cellsasmeasuredinvariousdimensions.The minimumcommonresolutionof the data
setsinvolvedgenerallysetsalowerboundonthe precisionwithwhichglobal modelscanbe applied to
particularlocations. Forexample, global socioeconomicandpolitical data at administrative unitorgrid
cell scale maybe lowerresolutionthan physical IPlocationdataatGPS plusrange of error. However,
modelingisaboutfindinguseful levelsof abstraction fromaggregatedglobal data.Forexample,
scientistshave beenabletopredictcholeraattacksaboutsix weeksaheadof time byusingsatellite
sensorstomeasure justthree parameters:chlorophyll,seasurface temperature,andseaheight.
(Colwell,1996; Struck,2011) it maybe interestingtoinvestigate “flowsandstates”of cybercrime at
higherlevelsof aggregationthanusual. Are particulargriddedcellshighlytargetedregardlessof
particularincidentlocations? Doesattackdensity“circulate”amongasetof adjacentor network
connectedcells?Onlyexplorationcananswersuchquestions.
Global eventsclassificationservicesrunningagainstnewsandsocial mediadataare anotherimportant
tool that provide synopticawarenessof emergingglobal trends. Examplesinclude serviceslike
HealthMap(Freifeld,Mandl,Reis,&Brownstein,2008) and the DARPA IntegratedCrisisEarlyWarning
SystemICEWS (Kettler&Hoffman,2012). The companyRecordedFuture hasusedvisualizationand
analysisof eventdatato achieve earlydetectionandunderstandthe historical spreadof malware and
othercyberthreats (Truvé,2011). Global eventanalysis technologieshave beenintegratedwithglobal
data setsand modelstoilluminate issuessuchasthe effectsof climate change onconflict (Hsiang,
Meng,& Cane,2011)and the spreadand impactof infectiousdiseases (Nsoesie,2014). There may be
value inusingeventanalysistechnologiestounderstandandmonitorthe precursorsandenablersof
cybercrime.
Finally,itisworthemphasizingthe value of informationvisualizationincommunicatingwithdecision-
makers. Cartographyisa specializedformof informationvisualizationthatisan art untoitself,andthe
difference betweenmediocre andexcellentcartographycanbe enormous. (Tufte &Graves-Morris,
1983). The expectationthatmapswill be interactive isbecomingstrongerandcustomerexpectationsof
qualityhave risenatthe same time as new formsof visualizationhave proliferated. (The Economist,
2013) Investmentintop-of-the-line cartographyandinformationvisualization islikelytobe cost-
effective,especiallywhenappliedtosupportnovel approachestowickedproblems,where the barriers
to understandingare higher.

7. Figure 3. Charles Minard’s famous map of Napoleon’s invasion of Russia shows the numbers of troops dwindling on the way to
Moscow and back. The best cartography is both beautiful and enlightening.
Relevance ofCybercartography to National Priorities
The 2011 Departmentof DefenseStrategyforOperatinginCyberspace identifiedfive strategicpriorities:
1) treat cyberspace asan operational domaintoorganize,train,andequipsothatDoD can take full
advantage of cyberspace’spotential
2) EmploynewdefenseoperatingconceptstoprotectDoD networksandsystems
3) PartnerwithotherU.S. governmentdepartmentsandagenciesandthe private sectortoenable
a whole-of-governmentcybersecuritystrategy
4) BuildrobustrelationshipswithU.S.alliesandinternationalpartnerstostrengthencollective
cybersecurity
5) Leverage the nation’singenuitythroughanexceptional cyberworkforce andrapidtechnological
innovation.”
Cybercartographyisan opportunitytoimprove federal capabilityinall these areas.
1) Maps and cartography are fundamental tomilitarytrainingandoperations.
2) Newstrategicoperatingconceptscome new waysof visualizingandmappingthe world.
(Barnett,2005; Kennan,1947; Mackinder,1904).
3) The 2014-2016 National Spatial DataInfrastructure Planreiteratesthat“protectingthe privacy
and securityof citizens’personal data”isa guidingprinciple forall federalagencies. (Federal
GeographicData Committee,2014) Furthermore,whole-of-governmentassessmentsinthe U.S.
and elsewhere have repeatedlyfoundthatacoordinatednational geospatial strategyoffers
benefitssuchasstimulatingeconomicgrowth,savingtaxpayerdollarsandimprovingresults,
and ensuringpublicsafetyandbetterdecisionsupport. (NationalGeospatial Advisory
Committee,2012; Natural ResourcesCanada,2014; Ng SiauYong, 2011)

8. 4) Cartographyisusuallyquite valuableinunderstandinginternational problems—thereisno
betterwayto presentasynopticview of a worldthatis dividedinto192 countries!—and
decision-makersneedanddeserve sophisticatedcartography.
5) Explorationof cybercartographyleveragesbothgovernmentandcivil humancapital and
encouragesitsdevelopment.
a. Afterfiftyyearsof pioneeringGISinvestmentsbygovernmentmostfederalagencies
have strongin-house geospatial workforce;developmentforsome portionforsome
portionof thisstaff couldinclude cybertrainingandbe directedtoaddressthe
executivebranchemphasisoncyberprediction,awareness,response andmitigation.
b. By the same token,the National Geospatial AdvisoryCommitteeobservedthat“ina
highlycompetitive global economy,the UnitedStatescurrentlyoccupiesthe leading
positioninthe geospatial sector.U.S.-basedgeospatial companies,whichgenerate
technical,high-payingjobsinthe UnitedStates,helpdrive the Americaneconomyby
providinggoodsandservicesthatare soldworldwide.A recentstudybythe Centerfor
Strategicand International Studiesestimatedthatgeospatial-relatedcompanies
generate $30 billionannually.The geospatial sectorhasgrownsteadily,withthe
commercial side growingatanacceleratedrate.” (National Geospatial Advisory
Committee,2012)
Otherofficial assessmentshave identifiedsimilarpriorities. Ina 2013 studyfor the legislative branch,
the General AccountingOffice foundfive keychallenge areas. (GovernmentAccountingOffice,2013)
1) designingandimplementingrisk-basedfederal andcritical infrastructureprograms
2) Detecting,respondingto,andmitigatingcyberattacks.
3) ImprovedR&D.
4) International cybersecurity challenges.
5) Shortfallsinpromotingeducation,awareness,andworkforce planning.
Thus the developmentof novel cybercartographycapabilitiesisresponsivetochallengesidentifiedby
boththe political branchesof governments andwill benefitbothnational securityandthe civil sectoras
theyface the potential fora newtype of disaster.Ina 2006 bookentitled SuccessfulResponseStarts
with a Map:A Blueprint forImproving GeospatialData,Tools,and Infrastructure the National Research
Council observed:“Inthe past fewyearsthe UnitedStateshasexperiencedaseriesof disasters,suchas
Hurricane Katrinain 2005, whichhave severelytaxedandinmanycasesoverwhelmedresponding
agencies.Inall aspectsof emergencymanagement,geospatial dataand toolshave the potential tohelp
save lives,limitdamage,andreduce the costsof dealingwithemergencies.” (National ResearchCouncil,
2007) The same studyalso remarkedthat“the effectivenessof anytechnologyisasmuchaboutthe
humansystemsinwhichitis embeddedasaboutthe technologyitself.” A human-driven,proactive and
dynamicprocessforcybercartographyinriskassessmentandresponse isfullyconsistentwithexpressed
national prioritiesforcybersecurity,geospatialdata,andriskassessment.

9. Conclusion
The precedingdiscussionisnotional. Developinguseful globaldatasetsrequiresdomainexpertise;
understandingof the state of the science andbestpractices;dataacquisition,conditioning,
harmonization,andintegration;errorchecking;informationdesign;andmore:avirtual “fusionlab”.
The importantpointisthat these techniquescanandshouldbe appliedtounderstandingthe
precursors,enablers,targets,andvulnerabilitiesassociatedwithcybercrime.

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