1WEEK TWO ASSIGNMENT 3Continuing Academic Success Stud.docx

1
WEEK TWO ASSIGNMENT
3
Continuing Academic Success
Student Name
GEN/201
Date
Instructor
Continued Academic Success
Introduction (Thesis from week #2 here) Create an Opening
statement and core theme for your Paper: Continuing Academic
Success (50-75 words).
Heading #1 (Example Idea: Educational and Career Goals)
Include at least one educational goal and one career goal and
how setting goals can lead to success (150-200 words).
Heading #2 (Example Idea: The Writing Process)
Discuss how the writing process can help you advance in your
education and your career (150-200 words).
Heading #3 (Example Idea: Ethical Lens)
Share an example of how the information from your Ethical
Lens Inventory can help you make better decisions (150-200
words).
Heading #4 (Example Idea: Critical Thinking Skills)

Elaborate on the steps will you take to improve your critical-
thinking skills (150-200 words).
Heading #5 (Example Idea: UOPX Resources)
Highlight the university resources you will use to ensure
academic success and also consider the benefits and challenges
of working with outside sources (150-200 words).
Conclusion
Summarize your three or four main points and illustrate your
closing viewpoints. As you conclude the paper feel free to
include any other important lessons you learned in this
course (150-200 words).
References (Place the “Reference(s)” on its own page.)
List at least three sources of reference. You should use the
articles from the Sources assignment in week #4. (Saves time!)
Refer to the Reference and Citation Generator for proper
formatting in the Center for Writing Excellence,
Revised 7/5/16
Module 01: Judgment in Managerial Decision-Making
Learning Outcomes
1. Critique the components of the decision-making process.
2. Explore prescriptive and descriptive decision-making.
3. Assess the use of heuristics in decision-making.
4. Evaluate the role of critical thinking in decision-making.
1. Leadership and Decision-Making
In this module, we will examine leadership and decision-making
within the organization. As such, we will discuss the importance
of decision-making and the organizational leader. Further, we
will examine these important decision-making concepts in light
of the various challenges that confront 21st-century

organizations. As an organizational leader, it is important for
you to have a solid understanding of leadership and decision-
making as you help lead your organization toward its goals,
objectives, and overall mission.
Leadership and Decision-Making
Leadership and decision-making go together hand-in-hand. In
fact, leaders are often confronted with important decisions
continually, even in the midst of uncertainty. Nevertheless,
great leaders understand how to make decisions that have a
positive impact on their organizations, employees, and
stakeholders (Kase, 2010). In today's highly volatile global
environment, organizational leaders are required to face
challenges that confront their organizations with increased
complexity (Campbell, 2013). Moreover, organizations rely
heavily on decision leaders who have been delegated the task of
leading the organizations amid complex challenges unlike any
other time in human history (Harnes, 2007; Story, 2011). As a
leader, you will also be confronted with such challenges as you
seek to influence your team, group, or organization toward
optimum performance and efficiency (Latham, 2014). As such,
global companies need leaders who are capable of working
anywhere and feel empowered operating in a diverse and
complex environment (Smith & Victoria, 2012).
It has long been established that sound decision-making is an
essential part of management and leadership functions
(Northouse, 2015). Without proper decision-making, it is only a
matter of time before undesirable results occur within the
organization (Daft, 2012). Moreover, organizational leaders are
required to make key decisions that will have a direct impact on
how the organization solves its internal problems, reacts to
external pressures, and ultimately accomplishes its mission
(Latham, 2014).
Both management and leadership are required to make a number
of decisions on a daily basis. Some decisions can be relatively
simple, while others can be quite complex (Daft, 2012).

Nevertheless, organizations require individuals who hold such
positions within the organization to make sound decisions with
the intent of producing desired outcomes.
As organizational leaders are faced with uncertainty, all too
often they are forced to make decisions with limited hard data
as they are faced with unknowns or a high level of ambiguity
(Northouse, 2015). As such, decision-making skills are essential
abilities that are required in order to keep organizations moving
in the right direction. Therefore, organizational leaders who
strive to improve the quality of their decisions are in a better
position to yield positive results for their organizations,
customers, employees, and stakeholders (Kase, 2010).2. Critical
Thinking and the Organizational Leader
Beyond decisions required for the day-to-day routine, there are
also decisions that are much more challenging and require a
higher level of critical thinking and critical thinking skills
(Butterfield, 2013). As suggested by Mangieri and Block
(2004), learning to think critically is essential to effective
leadership. As indicated by the literature, organizations that
have leaders who demonstrate critical thinking skills make
better decisions to meet immediate and long-range goals and
objectives. In the Harvard Business Review article entitled How
Leaders Should Think Critically, John Baldoni (2010) suggests
that in order for organizational leaders to succeed in 21st-
century business, they need to become critical thinkers. Baldoni
(2010) posits that critical thinking has always been a prized
attribute of leadership and is all the more important now that
the rate of complexity has risen significantly in recent years. He
further suggests that in a world of growing uncertainty,
organizational leaders will need sharp critical thinking skill in
order to “size up the situation” and realize potential where
others may not, and seize opportunities through effective
decision-making.
Anatomy of Decisions and the Rational Decision-Making
Process

Referring to the term judgment, Bazerman and Moore (2013)
present an anatomy of decisions. Moreover, they suggest that in
order to fully understand judgment, it is necessary to identify
the components of the decision-making process. Further, they
also suggest that there are six steps that should be taken when
applying a rational decision-making process. The authors
suggest that if a problem has alternative solutions, then there is
a “required” decision to make (2013). However, if there are no
alternatives to choose from, that eliminates the need to seek out
an appropriate solution. However, when alternative solutions
are available, then steps should be taken either implicitly or
explicitly when applying a rational decision-making process.
Prescriptive and Descriptive Decision-Making
As suggested by Bazerman and Moore (2013), there are two
major schools of thought when it comes to decision-making.
They are identified as prescriptive and descriptive. The authors
divide these models into two distinct categories and are largely
based on an analytical process of making a rational decision.
The authors suggest that descriptive decision-making involves
looking at how decisions are actually made. Prescriptive
decision-making, on the other hand, is based on a method of
making the best possible decision in light of all available
options (2013). Review these methods:
Prescriptive/Normative
· How people make decisions
· Finds out the best decisions
· Assuming an ideal decision-maker
Descriptive
· How people act in reality
· Why do they act this way?
Heuristics and the Decision Leader
As suggested by Gigerenzer and Gaissmaier (2011), heuristics
can be thought of as “mental shortcuts” and can play a key role
in decision-making. As such, a heuristic is considered a strategy

that ignores part of the information, with the goal of making
decisions more quickly than more complex methods (Gigerenzer
& Gaissmaier, 2011). In the article entitled Swift and smart
decision making: heuristics that work, Hoy and Tarter (2010)
provide several reasons why heuristics are used by stating the
following: “The reasons are many: situations are fluid and
changing; the outcomes of the decision are not clear;
information is sparse, overwhelming, or unreliable; goals are
often neither clear nor specified; and the number of decisions
required each day is relentless. Time is a scarce commodity that
restrains the number of alternatives a decision maker can
generate and consider” (p.1). Whatever the case, leaders will
use heuristics instinctively, especially when they are seasoned
leaders and have been faced with similar scenarios throughout
their leadership careers. Decisions that are made based on those
past experiences are obviously no guarantee of future success.
However, heuristics, if understood and practiced correctly, can
yield positive results.3. Summary
As discussed above, leadership and decision-making go together
hand-in-hand. As an organizational leader, you will be required
to make sound decisions on behalf of your organization,
employees, customers, and stakeholders in a way that brings
about positive results. Whether you are an aspiring leader,
currently serving in leadership capacity, or a seasoned
organizational leader of many years, having a proper
understanding of decisions and the decision-making process is
vital to your organization’s success. As such, making sound
decisions on behalf of your organization will better ensure that
your organization and its constituents will reach their maximum
potential in today's challenging global marketplace.
Module 2: Decision-Making Techniques, Tools, and
Approaches: Part 1
Learning Outcomes
1. Analyze the use of decision-making tools.
2. Explore decision-making approaches.
3. Evaluate decision-making techniques.

1. Overview of Decision-Making Approaches
In this module, we will examine three major decision-making
models used by leaders and managers alike as presented in the
literature. As established in the previous module, leadership and
decision-making go together hand-in-hand. As there are
different styles of leadership, there are also differing models of
decision-making. Moreover, leadership research in the Middle
East has developed substantially in recent years. In fact,
Littrell, Serra, Handan, Durmas, and Katrinili (2013) seek to
identify the ideal managerial leader within the context of
Istanbul and Izmir, Turkey, by analyzing leadership behaviors
through explicit leader behavior theory and organizations.
The study reveals that business leaders in the two regions of
Izmir and Istanbul demonstrate leadership behaviors ranging
anywhere from autocratic to paternalistic. Further, as noted by
Elanain (2013), there has been an extensive amount of empirical
leadership studies performed mainly in Western contexts.
However, Elanain suggests that more empirical evidence is
needed to understand the nature of relationships primarily in the
Middle East. As such, the researchers sought to conduct a study
in a non-Western context of the United Arab Emirates (U.A.E.)
and the Middle East.
Researchers suggest that ongoing leadership development in the
Middle East will continue as more challenges surface that
confront business organizations. As each organization has its
own unique challenges, the appropriate leadership and decision-
making models will be contingent upon the needs of the
organization and its constituents. As indicated by the literature,
the major decision-making models can be organized in four
different ways based on the type of decision that managers
make. Contingent upon the type of decision made, these models
can be organized as follows:
· Rational model
· Bounded rationality
· Intuitive approach
· Creative decision-making

The rational model of decision-making is a process whereby a
leaders make decisions based on the best possible outcome
available. As such, a leader will think through a sequence of
steps in order to arrive at the final decision. Of note, the
rational model of decision-making is best used when
information of varying alternatives can be assessed and
evaluated when determining the best course of action. The next
decision-making model is based on the concept of bounded
rationality. Such an approach is common when there is an
abundance of information, which cannot be fully processed.
Further, when the leader is faced with limited information or is
faced with limited time constraints, the leader may utilize the
bounded rationality approach when making a decision.
When a leader is making a decision based on experience or
when faced with a similar problem, it is common for them to
take the intuitive approach. Oftentimes, this model is based on
the emotional reaction of the leader to a particular choice.
Moreover, such a model of decision-making can result when
there is extremely limited or even inaccurate information.
Finally, a leader may choose the creative decision-making
model. Such an approach often leads to innovation and can
assist the organization in maintaining or even gaining a
competitive edge in the marketplace. When there is a need for
new ideas, creative strategies, or the need for solutions, the
creative decision-making model has been established as a highly
effective approach.
As discussed above, leaders can use each of these models in a
highly effective manner contingent upon the scenario. Again,
each of these models of decision-making will fit the
organizational leader’s particular style or facilitate the
organization’s particular needs. Whatever the case, learn more
about the details when each of the models should be used:
Rational
Use This Model When:
· Information on alternatives can be gathered and quantified.
· The decision is important.

· You are trying to maximize your outcome.
Bounded Rationality
· The minimum criteria are clear.
· You do not have, or you are not willing to invest, much time
to make the decision.
· You are not trying to maximize your outcome.
Intuitive
· Goals are unclear.
· There is time pressure and analysis paralysis would be costly.
· You have experience with this problem.
Creative
·
Solution
s to the problem are not clear.
· New solutions need to be generated.
· You have time to immerse yourself in the issues.
2. Decision OODA Loops and Vroom-Yetton Decision Models
The next model we will examine is known as the OODA loop
model. OODA is simply an acronym for:
· Observe
· Orientation
· Decision
· Acting

This model has been established as very effective in a wide
variety of organizational settings, but has not gone without
criticism. It is important to note that with any decision-making
model there are strengths and weaknesses to each approach.
Nevertheless, there are strengths that exist in each model that
are important for you to understand as an organizational leader.
The OODA loop model was developed by John Boyd for use in
military warfare decision-making. While not widely used today,
this model can be very useful in managerial decision-making.
The basis of this model is a step-by-step process that first
begins with observation, and then moves toward orientation to
deciding and acting as illustrated below:
The first stage in this model is to observe. A leader using this
model in stage one should consider what is happening in the
environment, as well as the information that is available. The
next stage in this model is orientation. Boyd (Bryant, 2006)
recognized that people process information based not only on
previous experience but also on cultural traditions, genetic
heritage, new information, and the ability to analyze and
synthesize information. As leaders move through this model
they are constantly reorienting. The next stage in this model is
the decision, which Boyd considered best guesses based on both
observation and orientation. The final stage in this model is that
of acting. Once a leader acts on a decision, he or she moves

back to the observation stage and tests the impact of the action.
Bryant (2006) critiqued Boyd’s model, stating the “greatest
failure of the OODA Loop as a framework of human decision
making is that it does not hint at this necessary dependence of
perception on preexisting knowledge and concepts” (p. 186). He
suggested a Critique–Explore–Compare–Adapt (CECA) Loop.
This model of decision making is a framework for “describing
natural human cognition” (Bryant, 2006, p. 194) and using
prescriptive decision-making as illustrated below.
The Vroom-Yetton Decision Model is based on the work Victor
Vroom and Phillip Yetton completed in the early 1970s. The
basis of this model is rooted in the process of deciding how to
decide. There are three factors that impact how leaders decide
how to decide. These factors include the quality of the decision,
the commitment of subordinates, and time constraints. The
leadership style a leader chooses to use in the decision-making
process is selected based on asking a series of questions as
illustrated below.
These leadership styles are described as either Autocratic 1 or 2
(A1 or A2), Consultative 1 or 2 (C1 or C2)
or Collaborative (G2). In an autocratic decision leadership
style, the leader makes the decision and informs others of the
decision. If the leader requests information from subordinates,

an A2 approach is being used. In the Consultative style, the
leader gathers information from subordinates in order to make
the decision. If the leader explains the decision to subordinates
and gathers their suggestions, a C2 approach is being taken. If
leaders use a consensus style where they act as facilitators, they
are using a collaborative (G2) approach.3. Decision Trees and
Mind Maps
There are a number of tools that are available for leaders to use
in making decisions. Decision trees and mind maps are two
popular tools to use in decision-making. Decision trees help
leaders choose from several different options, whereas mind
maps help leaders consolidate and summarize information to
organize information and solve complex problems.
A decision tree is relatively easy to design and use. A leader
would start with a decision he or she needs to make and would
draw a small square to represent this. Possible solutions are
then drawn with lines that explore the possible results of each
solution. Decision trees are effective because they lay out
problems with all possible solutions and the consequences of
these solutions as illustrated below.
Mind maps help you break down large problems into
manageable information. They are best used when you are
brainstorming ideas and need to consolidate information from
several sources in order to solve complex problems. Leaders

would start diagramming a mind map by placing the problem or
the task in a circle on the center of a piece of paper. Ideas and
facts about the problem are then extended from the problem.
Below is an illustration of a mind map:
Conclusion
In this module, we have examined several established decision-
making models and tools available to the organizational leader.
As indicated by the literature, such decision-making models can
be organized based on the needs of the organization or on the
type of decision that should be made. As such, it is important
for you to have a thorough understanding of the appropriate tool
or decision model in order to help you navigate your way
through the decision-making process. Having a proper
understanding of the nature and dynamics of these decision-
making models may also help you lead your organization in an
informed, efficient, and effective manner.
Module 3: Decision-Making Techniques, Tools, and
Approaches: Part 2
Learning Outcomes
1. Analyze the use of decision-making tools.
2. Explore decision-making approaches.
3. Evaluate decision-making techniques.1. Decision Matrices
and Quantitative Tools
In previous modules, we examined the various methods, tools,

and models commonly used by organizational leaders. As such,
we sought to gain a solid understanding of them within the
context of the organization. Further, we also examined ongoing
leadership research in the Middle East. Business leaders in
Saudi Arabia understand the importance of effective leadership.
In this module, we will continue our examination of decision-
making and the role of the organizational leader. It should be
noted that quite a number of leadership development initiatives
have taken place in recent years; specifically in the Middle
East. For example, Varshney (2014) discusses the Khaled
Alfaisal Administrative Leadership Development Program that
provided a global exposure blended with experiential learning
in Saudi Arabia (p.249).
The key role of the assessment center used in this research was
to observe, evaluate and eventually rate each participant's
performance. Such programs are a strong indication that
leadership development is understood as a necessary component
of the Middle Eastern business organization. Further, Alsalami,
Behery, and Abdullah (2014) sought to examine the correlation
between effective leadership styles and organizational
innovation, soliciting participants from public and private
organizations in Dubai, United Arab Emirates (U.A.E.). Results
of the research indicated that there is a strong correlation
between effective leadership models, appropriate decision-
making, organizational efficiency, and innovation (Alsalami,

Behery, & Abdullah, 2014, p.61).
As previously noted, effective leaders are skilled at making
decisions. As such, in order for such leaders to make
appropriate decisions on behalf of the organization, it is critical
to have a proper understanding of available quantitative
decision-making tools. That said, we now turn our attention
toward the decision matrix. We will see how the organizational
leader can use such quantitative tools as appropriate for the type
of decision that is being made. It should be noted that there are
a number of different quantitative tools that the decision leader
can use. Moreover, there are also several types of decision
matrices available to the organizational leader when going
through the decision-making process. A decision matrix might
consist of options, which can be scored, ranked, or weighted.
Moreover, a decision matrix may be considered useful based on
the fact that the data provided could be more objective based on
the data contained in the matrix.
As mentioned, there are a number of different decision matrices
leaders can use in the decision-making process, as well as
several quantitative tools. Leaders should know that these
options are available. Depending on the type of decision being
made, a leader may elect to use either a matrix or one of the
many quantitative tools available. Such quantitative tools have
been established as effective when properly understood and
used by the decision-maker. It is also important to understand

that there are a wide variety of such tools available to the
leader, but for the sake of brevity, we will share a basic and
commonly used decision matrix in this module.
Simply stated, a decision matrix will list given sets of values in
columns and rows, providing means whereby a decision-maker
can analyze or systematically identify relationships between
sets of information. Moreover, a matrix can be useful in
relatively simple or (more commonly) large amounts of decision
factors in order to systematically display the relevance or
significance of each. As with previously mentioned tools, the
decision matrix has been designed to help the organizational
leader to make better decisions. While it may be impossible for
an organizational leader to control the outcomes of the decision,
the decision matrix can help the leader to improve the process
of the decision itself. In this module we will provide an
illustration of the decision matrix itself, its key components,
basic structure, and layout.
It is common for organizational leaders to create a decision
matrix by listing factors and criteria individually, collectively,
or in a group. The rationale is to sum up and evaluate the
different options against the criteria. Although leaders
commonly make decisions based on instinct, previous
experience or other data, the decision matrix can help the leader
make an informed decision based on the total score presented in
the matrix. Should the organizational leader be strictly confined

to quantitative data when making an important decision? Simply
stated, the answer is no. There may be other qualitative factors
that come into play, which may be considered very important to
the decision being made.2. Using a Decision Matrix in the
Decision-Making Process
Keep in mind that there may be other factors involved that
cannot be quantified and should also be taken into consideration
during the decision-making process. Of course, such will be
contingent upon the scenario faced by the organizational leader
when navigating through the decision-making process. It is very
important that the organizational leader pays close attention to
the process when the decision is being made. Ignoring other
factors beyond quantitative data could certainly produce
unfavorable results for obvious reasons—especially when the
organizational leader is faced with complex decisions.
Using a decision matrix, a leader can evaluate and prioritize a
list of options and then evaluate them based on established
criteria. A decision matrix should be used when a leader knows
that a list of options can be narrowed to just one and there are
several different criteria that are the basis of the decision.
Leaders use a standard procedure in developing a decision
matrix. This includes brainstorming the criteria, discussing and
refining it and assigning a weight to it. Typically, a matrix is
drawn that includes the criteria and the weight. How the leader
evaluates the criteria can vary from establishing a rating scale

to establishing a baseline. The Mind Tools website offers a
good breakdown of a decision matrix.
The illustration below portrays a good example of a decision
matrix:
A leader uses quantitative tools for making decisions and
solving problems when he or she obtains solutions
mathematically. Some of these models include inventory
models, project models, critical path methods, forecasting
techniques, and statistical models. These models and tools are
often used in operations management and have become popular
due to the ability of computers to handle the calculations
required. While this class does not focus on these specific tools,
it is important to understand their contribution to leadership
decision-making.
Conclusion
As we have examined the decision matrix this week, it is hoped
that you will benefit by having an understanding of its use in
the decision-making process. Again, there are a wide variety of
matrices available to the decision leader, and they can often be
tailored to suit a particular need of both organization and
decision-maker. As such, using a decision matrix can assist the
leader in evaluating and prioritizing a list of options when faced
with a decision and evaluating those options based on

established criteria. From there, the leader will be in a better
position to make an informed decision based on weighing each
option.
Module 04: Problem-Solving and the Decision-Making Process:
Part 1
Learning Outcomes
1. Understand the problem solving process.
2. Analyze problems.
3. Develop effective problem statements.
4. Formulate management questions.1. The Problem-Solving
Process
In a study conducted by Mishra, Grunewald, and Kulkarni
(2014) leadership styles of midlevel managers, senior level
managers, and organizational leaders were examined within the
context of Muscat, Sultanate of Oman. As revealed in the study
conducted in the Middle East, multiple styles were examined in
light of their effect within the organization. In this module, we
will examine an overview of the problem identification and
problem-solving process and its importance to the
organizational leader. Moreover, we will see how such is
critical to leadership decision-making. Further, we will look at
decision-making theory in order to explain problems in light of
the leadership context. As such, we will seek to apply these
theories to our own leadership role and discuss the importance

of problem identification as organizational leaders. Finally, we
will examine the steps of the problem-solving process and
illustrate them in our discussion this week.
As covered in previous modules, leadership and decision-
making are critical functions within the organization. In fact,
it's nearly impossible to be able to separate the two. Effective
leaders understand how to make important decisions in order to
better their organization, or position their organization to
maintain its competitive edge. As already mentioned, sound
decision-making is an essential dynamic of the leadership
function.
Moreover, management at all levels of the organization is
required to make key decisions that will have a direct impact on
desired outcomes. As such, organizational leaders are required
to make those decisions in a way that helps to accomplish the
organization's mission, react to external pressures, or solve
internal problems that are all too common; especially in today's
highly volatile global marketplace.
Due to the rapid change of the global marketplace,
organizations seek leaders who are proficient at making the
right decision, at the right time, in the right place in order to
produce the right results. Think of a time when you had to make
a key decision in your workplace. What were some of the
issues? What were some of the challenges? What factors needed
to be taken into consideration? Importantly, what were the end

results? That said, it is important for you to have a proper
understanding of the decision process as an organizational
leader. As such, we will examine the importance of accurately
defining a problem with the aim of formulating an appropriate
strategy to solve the problem.
Leaders are required to make a wide variety of decisions on
both micro and macro levels. Moreover, despite the structure of
the organization or its reach, leaders will find themselves
confronted with problems that need to be solved. It is also
important to understand that decision-making is not simply
confined to the leadership role. It is also a required function of
management personnel as well. While leaders will more often
make decisions based on the macro environment, managers will
likewise find themselves required to make important decisions
in their immediate sphere of influence. Whatever the case,
effective decision-making can only come about through
problem-solving and is an ongoing process that is critical to the
success or even survival of the 21st-century organization.
Regardless of the setting a leader works in, he or she will spend
a great deal of time solving problems. Understanding this
process is important if leaders are going to make effective
decisions. Butterfield (2013) suggested that one thing that
distinguishes a manager from line staff is the role that managers
play as problem-solvers. Problems are often the basis of many
managerial decisions. Take a closer look at the steps in the

problem-solving process:
2. Identifying and Defining Problems
Before a leader can clearly define a problem, he or she must
recognize that a problem exists. On occasion, a leader will
ignore problems until they become too big. Once a leader does
recognize a problem, he or she should see it as an opportunity
for solutions and positive organizational change.
A clearly defined problem can lead to a list of solutions. Thus, a
leader should start with a clearly defined problem statement.
This description should include the scope and size of the
problem, as well as how the problem impacts the organization.
It should also note the consequences of the problem.
One major barrier to clearly defining a problem occurs when a
leader has a preconceived notion or idea as to the existence and
cause of a problem. As a result, the leader may not consider the
data that actually define the problem. Leaders must collect data
to demonstrate the existence of the problem and then clearly
define the problem. Learn more:
Ideal Situation
Based on previous years, tour sales overall should be steady,
with an increase in trips to adventure travel destinations.
Problem Summary
Customers report that fears about the economy, airline service,
and security are preventing them from traveling.
Symptom

Tour sales in all areas have decreased by 8%, with no increase
in adventure travel.
Size and Scope
Even our most popular European tours show no increase in
enrollment, despite heavy promotion.
Consequence
Plans to add tours, develop our website, and expand staff are
now on hold until we can solve this problem.
Research
50% of travel companies reported significant loss of revenue
last year.
Conclusion
In this module, we examined problem identification and the
problem-solving process. Moreover, we also looked at the
importance of these functions in the role of the leader. Clearly
defining a problem is a critical step toward subsequent problem-
solving and decision-making techniques. There is no doubt that
as you lead in your organization, you will find yourself serving
as a problem-solver. Therefore, it will be critical for you to
understand these necessary steps in order to identify a given
problem, and arrive at a viable solution.
Module 5: Problem-Solving and the Decision-Making Process:
Part 2
Learning Outcomes

1. Understand the problem-solving process.
2. Analyze problems.
3. Develop effective problem statements.
4. Formulate management questions.1. Leadership Theory and
Decision-Making
As we move into the fifth week of this course, we will continue
our discussion of problem-solving within the context of the
organization. Moreover, we will further our understanding of
various theories that have developed and have been established
by previous research. Further, we will seek to address these
challenges that confront managers and leaders who are assigned
the task of problem-solving and decision-making within the
modern organization. It is important to understand that being
aware of a symptom is not enough. As a decision leader it is
critical for you to dig deeper and get to the root of the problem
in order to ensure that the organization continues to move
forward in the right direction.
Theories and research play a role in how problems are solved in
organizational settings. People develop theories to help explain
what is happening around them every day. A personal theory
has its place in personal life. For example, a man might have a
theory of how a family comes to be either a functional or
dysfunctional unit. The man’s family theory was developed over
time and influenced by experiences, observations and
interpretations that helped him to choose terms, conditions, and

situations that predict family behavior.
In organizations, theory is also used to predict or explain what
is happening. In individual and organizational instances, a
theory is built upon definitions and systematically interrelated
concepts (Cooper & Schindler, 2013). Organizational leaders
who have the greatest understanding of relevant theories and
research are in the best position to make insightful and sound
decisions.
Relevant Leadership and Organizational Theories
Organizational problems such as those that leaders experience
every day in the work world must be approached in a structured
way if leaders are to reach resolution. A leader facing a
business problem can never look at all aspects of a problem
simultaneously. Therefore, the problem and potential resolution
must be defined within a framework, or exploration becomes
overwhelming. Additionally, a framework helps to reduce bias
from those involved in problem resolution. Even when a leader
believes that he or she knows little about the problem, personal
preconceived notions still exist. For example, a person may
have a theory about whether or not it will rain this afternoon.
He or she may not consciously think about the afternoon rain
theory when clouds begin to form, but undoubtedly a
preconception exists.
In the study of decision-making and organizational leadership,
theory plays a very important role. Today’s managers and

leaders address organizational problems that require a full
understanding of theoretical constructs. Leaders may not think
about theory every hour of every day at work, but astute leaders
rely on theoretical constructs to understand the organization and
make sound decisions. Understanding the interrelated ideas of a
theory allows decision-makers to evaluate whether a particular
theory is relevant to a particular problem. When faced with an
urgent management problem, a thoughtful manager or leader
takes necessary steps to better understand options and
alternatives to aid in the decision-making process.
2. Management Questions and Decision-Making
An effective leader does not make decisions off the cuff.
Instead, good decisions are grounded in asking good questions.
Developing the management problem and question is what
drives decisions throughout the research and problem-solving
process. Stating the problem with ambiguity, uncertainty, or
misstatements means that the decision-maker cannot confidently
proceed to find a relevant resolution. An effective manager or
leader will begin to investigate an organizational issue by first
correctly understanding the problem. Leaders might describe
symptoms of a problem in this way:
· Revenues are down by 5%
· Marketing department is not communicating with IT
· The plant in India is underproducing
· Data are not readily available to make sound financial

decisions
These symptoms do not accurately describe the management
problem in need of resolution. Symptoms are often interpreted
differently by different people. Bias and individual perceptions
about symptoms influence the research approach. Relying on
symptoms to design a research approach nearly always results in
flawed results. An enlightened manager or leader will often use
exploration to take a symptom or ambiguous issue, discover
more about the problem itself, and turn the management
dilemma into actionable research.
For many people, stating an organizational issue in the form of
questions helps to frame detailed responses. For example,
Sheila has been observing that more and more baby boomers in
her organization are taking early retirement. Conversations with
some of her managers have revealed that important
“institutional memory” is going with them when they leave.
Sheila may ask the following questions as she begins to gain an
understanding of this organizational issue:
Spending time to articulate the management problem and
research question with exactness and specificity is imperative
when conducting sound practical research. Allowing a well-
stated management problem to guide decisions on how to solve
a problem should be a goal of all leaders.
3. Research and

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