Blood performs essential functions like transporting oxygen, nutrients, waste, and more. It is composed of plasma and formed elements including red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Red blood cells contain hemoglobin and carry oxygen and carbon dioxide. White blood cells help fight infection and inflammation. Platelets prevent fluid loss through clotting. Blood typing involves the ABO and Rh blood group systems which must match between donor and recipient blood for safe transfusion. Common blood disorders include anemias, leukemias, and issues with clotting.

1. HAEMATOLOGY
Blood is a complex liquid that performs a number of functions
including:
Transporting
• oxygen from the lungs to all the cells of the body
• carbon dioxide from the cells to the lungs
• nutrients from the digestive organs to the cells
• waste products from the cells to the kidneys, lungs and sweat glands
• hormones from endocrine glands to the cells
• enzymes to various cells
Protecting
• against fluid loss through the clotting mechanism
• against infection (assisted by the lymph nodes and spleen)
Playing
• a role in the regulation of body temperature
Microscopically, blood is composed of two portions: plasma, a straw coloured liquid that is
left when the elements are removed from blood, and the formed elements, the cells and
cell-like bodies that are suspended in the plasma.
Types of Cells
• Erythrocytes (red blood cells) Erythrocytes or red blood cells (RBC) are biconcave
discs and contain haemoglobin a red pigment
containing iron. Erythrocytes combine with oxygen and
carbon dioxide and transport them in the blood
• Leucocytes (white blood cells) Leucocytes or white blood cells (WBC) function to
• Neutrophils combat inflammation and infection. Some leucocytes
• Eosinophils are phagocytotic (eg neutrophils) meaning they can
• Basophils ingest bacteria and dispose of dead matter.
• Lymphocytes
• Monocytes
• Thrombocytes (platelets) Thrombocytes or platelets are disc-shaped cells. They
prevent fluid loss by blood clotting.
Clotting
Blood maintains its liquid state as long as it remains in the vessels. If it is taken from the
body it thickens and forms a gel. The gel is called a clot. The process of clotting is called
coagulation. Its purpose is to prevent blood loss when a blood vessel is ruptured. If blood
clots too easily, the result can be thrombosis - clotting in an unbroken blood vessel. If the
blood takes too long to clot a haemorrhage can result. Chemical substances that prevent
clotting are called anticoagulants. Heparin is a quick acting anticoagulant that blocks the
clotting mechanism and prevents clotting.
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2. Origin
The process by which blood cells are formed is called haemopoieses. In the adult the
origin of blood cells are:
• Red bone marrow (myeloid tissue) produces red blood cells, granular leucocytes and
platelets.
• Lymphoid tissue - spleen, tonsils, lymph nodes - share responsibility with the myeloid
tissue for producing some leucocytes.
Root Combining form Meaning
Haem Haem/o, haemato, -aemia, -haemia Blood
Erythr Erythr/o Red blood cells
Reticul Reticul/o Young erythrocyte lacking a nucleus
Leuc Leuc/o, leuk/o White blood cells
Myel Myel/o Bone marrow
Activity 1
Build words which mean;
1. The study of blood ___________________________________________________
2. Condition of blood in the urine____________________________________________
3. Condition of deficiency of white blood cells__________________________________
4. Poisonous to white blood cells____________________________________________
5. Tumour of myeloid tissue________________________________________________
Activity 2 Write the meaning of;
1. haematoma ________________________________________________________
2. haemopoiesis ________________________________________________________
3. anaemia ________________________________________________________
4. haemorrhage ________________________________________________________
5. septicaemia ________________________________________________________
6. haemoglobin ________________________________________________________
7. leukaemia ________________________________________________________
8. thrombocytopenia______________________________________________________
9. thrombocytopathy______________________________________________________
10. plasmapharesis________________________________________________________
Blood Grouping
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3. The surface of erythrocytes contain different types of proteins called agglutinations. These
proteins are responsible for the two major blood group classifications: the ABO group and
the Rh group.
ABO grouping is based on 2 agglutinates symbolised as A and B. Individuals whose
erythrocytes manufacture only agglutinate A are said to have blood type A. hose who
manufacture only agglutinate B are blood type B. Individuals who manufacture both A and
B are blood type AB. Others, who manufacture neither, are called type O.
• Type A = 41% of the population
• Type B = 10% of the population
• Type AB = 4% of the population
• Type O = 45% of the population
• Type A blood can be given to Type A or AB
• Type B blood can be given to Type B or AB
• Type AB blood can be given to Type AB only
• Type O blood can be given to O, AB, A and B
• AB is the universal receiver and type O is the universal donor.
Rh grouping When blood is transfused the technician must make sure the donor and the
recipient match safely - not only for ABO but also for Rh. The Rh system is so named
because it was first worked out in the blood of the rhesus monkey. Like the ABO grouping,
the Rh system is based on agglutinates that lie on the surface of erythrocytes. Individuals
whose erythrocytes have the Rh agglutinates are designated Rh+ (positive). People who
lack Rh agglutinates are designated Rh- (negative)
Terms & word parts:
-aemia/aem (-emia [Am] ) condition of blood (blood)
-blast immature germ cell
blast/o early/growth/germ
cyt, cyt/o cell
erythr/o red
ferr/o iron
fer/o to carry/bear
haem/o, (hem/o [Am]) blood
hist/o tissue
leuc/o, (leuk/o [Am]) white
megal/o large
myel/o bone marrow
-osis abnormal disease, condition, or increase
paenia-, (penia-[Am]) decrease, deficiency
phage, (phagia) to eat (condition of eating)
-plasm formative substance
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4. poikil/o varied, irregular
-poiesis formation
-poly morph many forms or shapes
ser/o serum
sider/o iron
One of the main groups of blood disorders are those arising from abnormalities in the
number or type of blood cells, i.e. leukaemia - an abnormal increase in white cells.
Some exceptions are haemophilia - defect in the clotting mechanism, and purpura -
defect in the capillary walls.
Disorders & Terms:
Abnormality in oxygen carrying pigment haemoglobin in blood. Is
a sign not a diagnosis. It means there are insufficient
Anaemia erythrocytes or haemoglobin. These conditions lead to fatigue or
intolerance to cold, both of which are related to lack of oxygen
needed for energy and heat production.
Haemophilia Congenital disease, lack of clotting factors (Factor 8) in blood
Haemorrhage Bleeding, either internally or externally.
Hodgkin's disease Malignant disease of lymph nodes
Hypersplenism Enlarged spleen
Leucocytosis Increase in leucocytes in blood and bone marrow
Increase in abnormal white blood cells. Cancer of the blood.
Leukaemia is an uncontrolled, greatly accelerated production of
Leukaemia
white blood cells. These crowd out the normal production of red
blood cells and platelets.
Malignant lymphoma Tumour of the lymph nodes
Multiple myeloma Malignant disease of bone marrow
Pernicious anaemia Reduction of red blood cells in bone marrow
Is an abnormal increase in the number of red blood cells. It can
lead to thrombosis and haemorrhage. The clinical test important
Polycythaemia
in diagnosing polycythaemia is haematocrit. Haematocrit is the
percentage of blood that is made up of red blood cells.
Septicaemia Blood poisoning. Toxins or disease causing bacteria in the blood.
Splenomegaly Enlarged spleen
Splenorrhexis Rupture of spleen
Hereditary blood disease, abnormality in the production of
Thalassaemia
haemoglobin
Procedures:
autologous transfusion transfusion from self
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5. biopsy of lymph node removal of a small part of lymph node for examination
bone marrow transplant implantation of bone marrow from person to person
splenectomy removal of spleen
Abbreviations
ALL Acute lymphocytic leukaemia
AML Acute myeloid leukaemia
ESR Erythrocyte sedimentation rate
FBC Full blood count
Hb Haemoglobin
Hct Haematocrit
LFT liver function tests
MBA multiple biochemistry analysis
Na sodium
RBC Red blood cell / count
TFT thyroid function tests
WBC White blood cell / count
Haematology terms:
Erythrocyte Red blood cell (rbc)
Haemodialysis Removal of waste out of blood ("washing")
Haemoglobin The oxygen-carrying pigment found in red blood cells
Haemopoiesis The process of production of blood cells
Leucocyte White blood cell (wbc)
Myelopoiesis The process of production of bone marrow
Plasma The fluid component of blood
Platelet Disc-shaped cell structure present in blood (thrombocyte)
Serum Fluid that separates from clotted blood (lacks coagulation factors)
Thrombocyte Platelet
Other Terms:
Dyscrasia An abnormal state of the body or part of body
Leucocytosis Increase of white blood cells (leucocytes)
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6. Leucopaenia Decrease of white blood cells (leucocytes)
Lymphocytopaenia Decrease of lymphocytes in blood
Lymphocytosis Increase of lymphocytes in
Macrocytosis Abnormally large red blood cells (erythrocytes)
Microcytosis Abnormally small red blood cells (erythrocytes)
Poikilocytosis Abnormally shaped erythrocytes
Proliferation Increase in numbers
Pyrexia Fever
Thrombocytopaenia Reduction of platelets in blood
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