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 Freud proposes that there is a never-ending
battle between two irrational forces (the id
and the superego), with a mediator (the ego)
in the middle.
 Much of this conflict is unconscious, but
when it becomes serious, an alarm goes off.
Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007 11-2
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 When the anxiety or guilt alarm rings, the
ego defends itself through unconscious
efforts referred to as defense mechanisms
that tend to deny or distort reality.
 The effect of defense mechanisms is to
reduce anxiety or guilt.
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 Freud proposed that an individual’s
personality develops through a series of
five stages stretching from infancy to
adulthood.
 These stages are called psychosexual
stages because each is characterized by
efforts to obtain pleasure centered on
one of several parts of the body called
erogenous zones.
 According to Freud, the five stages of
psychosexual development are the oral,
anal, phallic, latency, and genital stages.
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 Pleasure-seeking behavior in the oral
stage focuses on the baby’s mouth.
Infants and toddlers can often be seen
biting, sucking, or placing objects in their
mouths.
 Freud hypothesized that if oral needs
such as the need for food are delayed,
the child’s personality may become
arrested or fixated.
 A person whose development is arrested
will display behaviors as an adult that are
associated with the time of life during
which the fixation occurred.
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 From about 18 months until about 3 years of
age, the child is in the anal stage.
 As the child gains muscular control, the
erogenous zone shifts to the anus, and the
child derives pleasure from the expulsion and
retention of feces.
 The key to this stage is toilet training.
 The way parents approach toilet training can
have lasting effects on their children.
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 The phallic stage, which begins at about age
4 to 5, is ushered in by another shift in the
erogenous zone and the child’s pleasure-
seeking behavior.
 During this stage, children derive pleasure
from fondling their genitals.
 The phallic stage is also the time when the
Oedipal complex (in boys) or the Electra
complex (in girls) occurs.
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 Freud believed that young boys develop a
sexual interest in their mothers, see their
father as competitors for the mothers’
affection, and therefore wish to get rid of
their fathers.
 The young boy fears his father’s
retaliation for these forbidden sexual and
aggressive impulses.
 He fantasizes that the father’s retaliation
would involve injury to his genitals; as a
result, he experiences what is called
castration anxiety.
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 To reduce the fear, the boy represses his
sexual desire for his mother and begins to
identify with his father, which means that he
tries to be like Dad in his behavior, values,
attitudes, and sexual orientation.
 In the Electra complex young girls become
aware that they do not have penises, which
Freud believed they both value and desire.
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 Thus girls experience penis envy, which leads
to anger directed at their mothers and sexual
attraction toward their fathers.
 A girl’s attraction to her father is rooted in a
fantasy that seducing him will provide her
with a penis.
 Resolution of this complex occurs when the
girl represses her sexual desires and begins
to identify with her mother.
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 At about age 6, children enter a period when their
sexual interests are suppressed.
 This period, which lasts until the beginning of
adolescence, is called the latency stage.
 Sexual interests are reawakened at puberty and
become stronger during the genital stage.
 In this stage, sexual pleasure is derived from
heterosexual relationships.
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 Some of Freud’s most outspoken critics were
formerly his greatest admirers who once
espoused his views, but for a variety of reasons
they developed new perspectives that
nonetheless fit the psychodynamic mold.
 For example, they did not accept Freud’s
emphasis on the id and the role of sexual
motives; instead they emphasized the ego and its
role in the development of personality, as well as
the social aspects of personality.
 These individuals are frequently referred to as
neo-Freudians.
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 One of the best-known neo-Freudians, Carl
Jung, split from Freud on more than one
issue and developed his own psychodynamic
viewpoint.
 Jung did not want to place as much emphasis
on sexuality as did Freud.
 He suggested that a collective unconscious
contains images shared by all people.
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 Jung proposed the concepts of
introversion and extraversion to reflect
the direction of the person’s life force.
 Karen Horney, an early disciple of
Freudian thinking, rejected several
Freudian notions and added several of her
own.
 She viewed personality disturbances not
as resulting from instinctual strivings to
satisfy sexual and aggressive urges but as
stemming from the basic anxiety that all
people share.
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 Alfred Adler believed that Freud
overemphasized the sexual drive in
explaining personality.
 He argued that the primary drive is social
rather than sexual.
 Adler can be considered the first self
theorist due to the emphasis he placed on
this concept.
 For him the self was the most important
part of the personality.
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 Significantly, Freud’s theory is based on
the study of a small number of disturbed
people, who may not provide the basis for
generalizations applicable to most
people.
 Freud is credited with pointing out the
influence of early childhood experiences
and with developing a stage theory of
development
 In addition, he noted the potential
importance of unconscious experiences
and the influence of sexuality on human
behavior.
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 Many of Freud’s concepts and principles are
not directly testable; hence, there is little
scientific evidence to support his theory.
 His subjective method of data collection and
views about women also have attracted
criticism.
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 According to Skinner, we can explain the
distinctiveness of individual personalities
without using terms such as traits.
 Each person’s behavior is distinctive
because each one experiences different
histories of reinforcement and
punishment.
 Skinner focused attention on the
environmental factors that initiate and
maintain behaviors that ultimately
distinguish one person from another.
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 Social learning theory is the theory that
learning occurs through watching and
imitating the behaviors of others.
 The concept of expectancy is one of the most
important elements of social learning theory.
 People differ in their tendencies to view
themselves as capable of influencing
reinforcers or being subject to fate.
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 Some people, called internals, believe that
they can influence their reinforcers via their
skill and ability.
 Others, called externals, believe that
whether they attain a desired outcome is due
primarily to chance or fate.
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 Julian Rotter devised the Internal-External (I-
E) Scale to measure individuals’ locus of
control (internal or external); since then,
locus of control has become one of the most
studied concepts in psychology.
 Locus of control is related to a variety of
outcomes, including academic and health
behaviors.
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 According to Albert Bandura, individuals not
only are affected by the environment but
also can influence it.
 What's more, cognitive factors can influence
the person's behavior and his or her
environment.
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 This
combination of
cognitive,
behavioral,
and
environmental
effects is
called
reciprocal
determinism.
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 Another key concept in Bandura’s theory is
self-efficacy, a person’s beliefs about his or
her skills and ability to perform certain
behaviors.
 Unlike a trait, self-efficacy is specific to the
situation and can change over time.
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 A group of theorists called humanistic
psychologists oppose the basic beliefs of both
psychodynamic theory and behaviorism.
 They focus on the present and the healthy
personality.
 What’s more, they view the individual’s
perceptions of events as more significant than
the learning theorist’s or therapist’s perceptions.
 For these reasons, they are often called
phenomenological psychologists.
 Phenomenology is the study of experience just as
it occurs.
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 Abraham Maslow described humanistic
psychology as the “third force” in American
psychology because it offered an alternative
to psychodynamic theory and behaviorism.
 According to Maslow, human beings have a
set of needs that are organized in a
hierarchy.
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 These needs begin with physiological needs
and move on to needs for safety, love and
belongingness, and self-esteem.
 These basic needs exert a powerful pull on
our behavior.
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 Carl Rogers shared Maslow’s belief that
people are innately good and are directed
toward growth, development, and personal
fulfillment.
 As we develop, our concept of self emerges.
 The self is our sense of “I” or “me”; it is
generally conscious and accessible and is a
central concept in Rogers’s theory.
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 The self-concept is our perception of our
abilities, behaviors, and characteristics.
 Rogers believed that we act in accordance
with our self-concept.
 Maslow and Rogers agreed that people
have a strong need to be loved, to
experience affection.
 Sometimes, however, people experience
affection that is conditional—given only if
they engage in behaviors that are
approved by others.
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 Rogers contrasted this conditional regard with what
he called unconditional positive regard, in which a
person is accepted for what he or she is, not for
what others would like the person to be.
 According to Rogers, if you grow up believing
affection is conditional, you will distort your own
experiences in order to feel worthy of acceptance
from a wider range of people.
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 According to Rogers we have a real self, the self as
it really is, a product of our experiences.
 We also have an ideal self, the self we would like to
be.
 Maladjustment results when there is a discrepancy
between the real self and the ideal self.
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