1. Goal Setting and
Goal Striving
Chapter 8

3. PL ANS: The TOTE Unit
The cognitive mechanism by which plans energize and direct behavior.
If Incongruous
TEST OPERATE TEST
Compare Act on Compare
Present State Environment Present State
With Ideal State If Incongruous To Realize With Ideal State
Ideal State If congruous
EXIT
Schematic of the TOTE Model Present State in
Congruity with
Ideal State

4. PL ANS: Discrepancy
Present state represents the persons Ideal state represents
current status of how life is going. how the persons
wishes life was going.
Presen Ideal
t State
State
• When the present state falls short of the hoped-for ideal state, a discrepancy is exposed.
• It is the discrepancy-rather than the ideal state per se– that has motivational properties.
• Discrepancy creates the sense of wanting to change the present state so that it will move
closer and closer toward the ideal state.

5. T wo T ypes of Discrepancy
Discrepancy Reduction Discrepancy Creation
Based on the discrepancy-detecting Based on a “feed-forward” system
feedback that underlies plans and in which the person looks forward
corrective motivation. and proactively sets a future,
higher goal.
Discrepancy reduction corresponds Discrepancy creation corresponds to
to plan-based corrective motivation. goal-setting motivation.
Discrepancy reduction is reactive, Discrepancy creating is proactive,
deficiency overcoming, and revolves growth pursuing, and revolves around
around a feedback system. a “feed-forward” system.

6. A goal is whatever an
individual is trying to
accomplish. Goal
Setting * A reference point for guiding
subsequent mental and physical
action so one can evaluate
adequacy for one's performance.
(1) Standard
a definition of what adequate performance is * Defines the cross-over point between
satisfaction and dissatisfaction
(2) Incentive *An target to aim for—usually with an
a performance criterion for reinforcement external object to aim for such as
money or a high grade.

7. How Difficult and Specific Goals Raise Performance to
Remove Goal-Performance Discrepancies
Energizes Behavior
• Increases Effort,
When Person Works Harder
Difficult
• Increases Persistence,
Person Works Longer
Enhanced
Setting a Goal
Performance
Directs Behavior
• Increases Attention,
When
Person Works with Focus
Specific
• Increases Planning,
Person Works Smarter
Figure 8.2

8. Additional Goal Mechanisms
Why do goals work to increase performance?

9. Feedback documents the performer’s
progress towards goal attainment.
The Fundamental Importance of Feedback
or, Knowledge of Results
Above-standard
(1) Feedback defines performance At-standard
Therefore, instructive to future goal setting efforts
Below-standard
(2) Feedback acts as a reinforcer (or punisher)

10. Summary of the Goal-Setting Process
Figure 8.3

11. Goal Processes
Variables that Moderate the Goal  Performance Relationship

12. Four factors that Affect Goal Acceptance
1. Perceived difficulty of the imposed goal
There is an inverse relationship between goal difficulty and goal commitment.
Participation in the goal-setting process
2. A negotiated goal with flexibility and give-and-take facilitates participation and
internalization of the goal.
3. Credibility of the person assigning the goal
4. Extrinsic incentives

13. Four Predictors of Goal Choice
Each predictor provides an independent contributions
Goal Choice
• Ideal goal
• Actual goal
• Minimal goal

14. Short-term vs. Long-term Goal-
Setting of short-term goal: Pass Exam 3 in my Psychology course
• Example
• Example of long-term goal: Become a teacher in Public School System
Problems with Long-Term Goals (LTGs)
1 With LTGs, there is a prolonged period of time in which
performance goes unreinforced. Therefore, goal commitment can
be expected to decrease.
2 LTGs don’t provide/generate immediate performance feedback.
* Therefore, * This solution is especially
performer may benefit necessary if the long-term goal
by translating a long-term goal is a relatively uninteresting task to
into a series of short-term goals. perform.

15. A Long-Term Goal as a Complex Cognitive Lattice Structure
Figure 8.4

16. Dangers & Pitfalls in Goal-Setting
*Goals seen as too difficult
1 Increased Stress *Goal overload
*Goal conflict
*Difficult goals may lead to sub-goal performance and
2 Possibility for Failure therefore to detrimental emotional consequences
associated with failure.
*The purpose of goal is to focus attention and action in
3 Non-goal Areas Ignored certain directions. So non-goal areas are intentionally
devalued.
4 Short-Range Thinking *Proximal vs. Distal goal-setting debate.
*Goals, when made public and when involving extrinsic
5 Cheating incentives, can create performance pressure and prompt efforts
at cheating rather than effort at skill development.
*If task is interesting, short-term goals are typically
experienced as controlling and undermine intrinsic motivation
Undermines (IM).
6 Intrinsic Motivation
*If task is uninteresting, short-term goals can create
competence feedback and increase intrinsic motivation.

17. A specific goal-directed action, initiated at an anticipated future outcomes
Implementation
Intentions
A 2-Step Process
(1) (2)
Set the goal Planning
How to attain
e.g.,
make a 4.0 GPA That goal
Consume < 2,000 Kcal today
Run this mile in <8:00 min.

18. Implementation
Intentions
(2) Planning how to attain the goal

19. Implementation
Intentions
Goal Pursuit Goal Pursuit
Getting Started Persisting &
Finishing
Attaining goals requires not only Implementation intentions help
effective goal setting but also a Direct one’s attention toward
pre-action period in which one goal-directed action while
decides when, where, and how excluding distractions
that goal will be implemented.

20. Putting it all together
Steps in an Effective Goal-Setting Program
Sequential Steps within the Goal-Setting Process
Sequential Steps within the Goal-Striving Process