The document discusses the classification and development of plants and animals. It begins by outlining the five kingdoms - Monera, Protist, Fungi, Plant, and Animal. It then describes the hierarchical levels of classification within the kingdoms, from phylum down to species. For plants, it focuses on the development of angiosperm plants, including the seed and growth/differentiation of plants. Primary topics covered are plant classification, seed development, and plant growth through cell division, expansion and differentiation.

1. Development in
Plants and Animals

2. • Principles of systematics
• Classification of the living organisms
- viruses, bacteria and archae
- protest
- fungi
• Plants
• Development of an Angiosperm Plant
- The seed and its development
-Growth and differentiation of the plant

3. • Animals
• Development of multicellular Animals
- Reproduction in animals
- Embryonic and Post embryonic development

4. Principles of systematics
• Biological systematics is the study of the
diversification of living forms, both past and
present, and the relationships among living things
through time.
• John Lindley provided an early definition of
systematics in 1830, although he wrote of
"systematic botany" rather than using the term
"systematics"

5. Determining a "Natural Classification"
Evolutionary processes (anagenesis and cladogenesis)
produce a pattern
• phylogeny: the history of organismal evolution
• [cf. genealogy: the history of a single family]
Diagrams of phylogeny resembles a tree (The Tree of Life)
• living species are the terminal twigs
• extinct species are the interior twigs
• genera, families, orders are successively older & larger
(more inclusive) branches & limbs

7. Systematics: the science of organizing the history of
organismal evolution
Identification: recognizing the place of an organisms in an
existing classification
Use of dichotomous keys to identify organisms
Taxonomy (Nomenclature): assigning scientific names
according to legal rules
Classification: determining the evolutionary relationships of
organisms
A "Natural Classification" will accurately reflect phylogeny
Classification should be a hypothesis of evolutionary
relationships

8. • The PhyloCode is a formal set of rules governing
phylogenetic nomenclature. It is designed to name
the parts of the tree of life by explicit reference to
phylogeny.

9. • Alternative classifications are possible (and widely
used): But An arbitrary classification cannot help
us understand evolution
Ex: If all 'marine mammals' are combined in a
single order Cetacea, this implies that aquatic
adaptations have evolved only once. If we
understand that seals (Pinnipedia), toothed whales
(Odontoceti), & baleen whales (Mysticeti) evolved
separately, we will understand the differences in
their physiology.

10. Inferring the degree of evolutionary
relationship
How can we describe the position of each 'twig' with
respect to all others?
distance: amount of change between twigs
How similar (or different) are species?
phenetic distance: distance measured between tips
(i.e., "as the crow flies" from one twig to another)
patristic distance: distance measured along connecting
branches
(i.e., "as the ant runs" from one twig to another)

11. • relationship: pattern of connection between
twigs
How closely related are species?
cladistic relationship: pattern of branching
back to most recent common ancestor (MRCA)
(i.e., where do twigs join lower in tree?)

12. Traditional Taxonomy has
emphasized analysis of similarity
• Phylogenetic Analysis considers cladistic
patterns of common ancestry
Analysis of distribution of shared character states:
Character: any morphological, molecular,
behavioural, ecological, etc. attribute of an
organism
Character State: alternative forms of a
Character [cf. "gene" and "allele"]
Similarity of characters [character states] may
occur for either of two reasons

13. • Analogous characters are 'similar' because of
convergence from dissimilar ancestors
These do not indicate common ancestry => not useful
for classification
Analysis of distribution of shared character states:
Character: any morphological, molecular,
behavioural, ecological, etc. attribute of an organism
Character State: alternative forms of a Character [cf.
"gene" and "allele"]
Similarity of characters [character states] may occur for
either of two reasons

14. Character evolution in Amniote Phylogeny

15. Analogous characters are 'similar' because
of convergence from dissimilar ancestors
These do not indicate common ancestry => not useful for
classification
bat wing vs. butterfly wing: embryologically dissimilar
aquatic habit of whales and pinnipeds
cow horn vs. deer antler: anatomically dissimilar
legless lizard vs. snake: common ancestor had legs
bat wing vs. bird wing: common ancestor was flightless
reptile

16. Homologous characters are 'similar' because of
descent from common ancestor
These are therefore useful for classification
bat wing vs. kangaroo arm: from Therapsid
forelimb
ostrich 'wing' vs. penguin 'wing': from
Archeopteryx-like wing
bat forelimb vs. bird forelimb: from reptile
forelimb

17. Homologous characters will evolve over
time =>
Homologous characters need not look alike or
function alike. Characters that are unchanged
from those of the ancestors are called
'ancestral' or plesiomorphic
Characters that are changed in the
descendants are called 'derived' or apomorphic
[Avoid the terms 'primitive' and 'advanced':
they have false connotations]

18. Homologous characters are of two types:
• Shared ancestral characters: similar to each other, and
to their ancestor also called 'ordinary homologies' or
symplesiomorphic characters
• Ex.: scales in lizards & crocodiles are an inheritance
from Diapsida
• Shared derived characters: similar to each other,
and different from their ancestor also called 'special
homologies' or synapomorphic characters

19. • Ex.: carnassial pair (P4/M1) is a synapomorphy of
dogs & cats
is derived from molariform teeth in Creodonta
[Characters unique to particular taxa are called
autapomorphic characters
• Ex.: wings in bats are unique among mammals]

20. The nature of homology changes
depending on the taxa under analysis
• Ex.: The character "hair" is:
Among turtle, lizard, bird, and cat: a unique character
of mammals
Among turtle, lizard, cat, and kangaroo: a shared
derived character of therian synapsids
Among kangaroo, bat, cat, and whale: an shared
ancestral character of non-cetaceans

21. Homologous characters can be used to
construct a natural classification
Use of analogous characters results in polyphyletic groups:
loosely, groups that do not have a common ancestor
[but everything has a common ancestor]
accurately, groups that do not include the common ancestor
of the group
Ex.: Pinnipedia (marine carnivores) were once thought to
be polyphyletic
walruses & sealions are related to bears,
earless ("true") seals are related to weasels

22. • Polyphyletic groups are often defined by "absence"
characters
Amphibia: scaleless tetrapods
The first terrestrial tetrapods (Devonian
Amphibia) had scales
Modern Lissamphibia [salamanders (Caudata),
frogs (Anura), & caecilians (Gymnophiona)]
are secondarily scaleless [an adaptation for
dermal respiration]
& probably independent lineages

23. • Edentata: toothless mammals
Jurassic mammals had teeth
anteaters (Xenarthra) and pangolins (Pholidota) are
secondarily toothless
Jurassic mammals

24. Polyphyletic groups are rejected by
all modern taxonomists
• They do not have 'evolutionary implications'
'edentate' [toothless] taxa evolved under distinct
ecological conditions
Ex.: "Insectivora" is a 'garbage can' taxon:
any "primitive" insect-eating animal that doesn't fit
elsewhere

25. • Use of homologous characters results in
monophyletic groups:
• loosely, groups that are descended from a single
common ancestor
• accurately, groups that include the common
ancestor of the group

26. Monophyletic groups are of two kinds:
• Use of shared ancestral characters results in
paraphyletic groups:
-a monophyletic group that includes the ancestor
and some but not all of its descendants. This
creates a
Grade: a group defined by a combination of shared
ancestral & derived characters
describes a level of biological organization
Ex.: among the traditional taxonomic Classes of
Vertebrata

27. • Agnatha: jawless descendants of first vertebrates
hagfish (Myxiniformes) & lampreys
(Petromyzontiformes)
• gnathostomous relatives of Craniata (Chondrichthyes,
"fish") not included
• Osteicthyes: fish with bony skeletons
• amniotic relatives of Sarcopterygia (lungfish) not
included Reptilia: scaly tetrapod descendants of first
amniote
• feathery diapsid & furry synapsid relatives not included

28. Classification of the
Living Organisms

29. All living organisms are classified into groups based on very
basic, shared characteristics. Organisms within each group are
then further divided into smaller groups. These smaller groups
are based on more detailed similarities within each larger
group. This grouping system makes it easier for scientists to
study certain groups of organisms. Characteristics such as
appearance, reproduction, mobility, and functionality are just
a few ways in which living organisms are grouped together.
These specialized groups are collectively called the
classification of living things. The classification of living things
includes 7 levels: kingdom, phylum, classes, order, families,
genus, and species .

30. Kingdoms
• The most basic classification of living
things is kingdoms. Currently there are
five kingdoms. Living things are placed
into certain kingdoms based on how
they obtain their food, the types of cells
that make up their body, and the
number of cells they contain.

31. The Five Kingdoms
• Kingdoms are a way that scientists have
developed to divide all living things. These
divisions are based on what living things have in
common and how they differ. This system was
developed over 2, 000 years ago and has
changed drastically over the years. Currently
there are five kingdoms in which all living things
are divided: Monera Kingdom, Protist Kingdom,
Fungi Kingdom, Plant Kingdom, and Animal
Kingdom.

32. Monera Kingdom
• The Monera Kingdom consists of organisms that are
made up of one cell. These organisms are called
unicellular. These unicellular organisms are made of
a very simple cell that often lacks many cell parts,
such as a nucleus, that are commonly found in
other cells. Bacteria are a type of monera.

33. Protist Kingdom
• Protists are similar to monera in that they are unicellular.
Protists are a bit more complex because they contain a
nucleus. They also have moving parts and can move around
within their environment.

34. Fungi Kingdom
• Fungi have their own kingdom because there is no other
organism like them. They were once thought to be plants
but they differ from plants in one major way. Fungi cannot
make their own food. Mushrooms are a type of fungi.

35. Plant Kingdom
• All plants are a part of the Plant Kingdom. Plants include
trees, grass, flowers, and algae. They all share the common
characteristic of being able to make their own food using
water and sunlight. Because they only require a few simple
requirements, plants can grow almost anywhere.

36. Animal Kingdom
• Organisms in the Animal Kingdom are multicellular and
rely on other organisms for food. This kingdom is by far
the largest of all the kingdoms. The animals of the Animal
Kingdom can be found all over the world and can be any
size from very tiny to extremely big.

37. Phylum
• The phylum is the next level following
kingdom in the classification of living
things. It is an attempt to find some kind
of physical similarities among organisms
within a kingdom. These physical
similarities suggest that there is a
common ancestry among those
organisms in a particular phylum.

38. Classes
• Classes are way to further divide
organisms of a phylum. As you could
probably guess, organisms of a class
have even more in common than those
in an entire phylum. Humans belong to
the Mammal Class because we drink
milk as a baby.

39. Order
• Organisms in each class are further
broken down into orders. A taxonomy
key is used to determine to which order
an organism belongs. A taxonomy key is
nothing more than a checklist of
characteristics that determines how
organisms are grouped together.

40. Families
• Orders are divided into families.
Organisms within a family have more in
common than with organisms in any
classification level above it. Because
they share so much in common,
organisms of a family are said to be
related to each other. Humans are in the
Hominidae Family.

41. Genus
• Genus is a way to describe the generic name
for an organism. The genus classification is
very specific so there are fewer organisms
within each one. For this reason there are a
lot of different genera among both animals
and plants. When using taxonomy to name
an organism, the genus is used to determine
the first part of its two-part name

42. Species
• Species are as specific as you can get. It is the
lowest and most strict level of classification
of living things. The main criterion for an
organism to be placed in a particular species
is the ability to breed with other organisms of
that same species. The species of an
organism determines the second part of its
two-part name.

43. Field Rose
• Kindom
Eucaryota
• Phylum
Spermatophyta
• Class
Magnoliophytina
• Order
Rosales
• Family
Rosacease
• Genus
Rosa
• Species
arvensis

44. Plants

87. Development of an
Angiosperm Plant

101. The Seed and its Develpment

112. Growth and
differentiation of
Plants

113. Growth and differentiation in plants
• Growth is defined as an irreversible
increase in dry mass and side of
protoplasm.
• Growth of a multicellular organism can be
divided into three phases:
• 1. Cell division (hyperplasia) an increase
in cell number as a result of mitotic
division.

114. • 2. Cell expansion (hyper trophy) an
irreversible increase in cell size as a
result of the uptake of water and
assimilation of material leading to the
synthesis of the protoplasm;

115. • 3. Cell differentiation (specialization of
cells); in its broad sense, growth also
includes this phase of cell development.
The cells do not divide any more.
• Growth is usually accompanied by an
increase in the complexity of the organism
by the formation of new tissue and
organs. This is known as development.

116. • All the above processes take place at almost the
same time. It is difficult to determine where one
stops and the other begins.
• Measuring growth
• Growth can be estimated by measuring some
parameter of the organism such as fresh weight,
dry weight, height, length, surface area, volume
etc. Each has advantages and disadvantages.

117. • One of the disadvantages of measuring
growth by changes in size or weight is due to
the ignorance of the fact of allometric
growth.
• Allometric growth is the growth of different
parts of the body at rates peculiar to
themselves, higher or lower than the growth
rate of the body as a whole.

118. • Isometric growth is the growth of
different parts of the body at same rate
as the growth rate of the body as a
whole.

119. Growth and development in plants.
• Primary and secondary meristems
• A primary meristem is a region of active cell
division that has persisted from its origin in the
embryo or young plant. It results in primary
tissue. Apical meristems are primary meristems. A
secondary meristem is a region of active cell
division that has arisen from permanent tissue.
The cork cambium is an example of a secondary
meristem.

135. END