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Total Quality Management Defined
Quality Specifications and Costs
Six Sigma Quality and Tools
External Benchmarking
ISO 9000
Service Quality Measurement
OBJECTIVES
2
Total Quality Management (TQM)
Total quality management is defined as
managing the entire organization so that it
excels on all dimensions of products and
services that are important to the customer
3
Quality Specifications
Design quality: Inherent value of the
product in the marketplace
Dimensions include: Performance, Features,
Reliability/Durability, Serviceability,
Aesthetics, and Perceived Quality.
Conformance quality: Degree to which
the product or service design
specifications are met
4
Costs of Quality
External Failure
Costs
Appraisal Costs
Prevention Costs
Internal Failure
Costs
Costs of
Quality
5
Six Sigma Quality
A philosophy and set of
methods companies use to
eliminate defects in their
products and processes
Seeks to reduce variation
in the processes that lead
to product defects
The name, “six sigma”
refers to the variation that
exists within plus or minus
three standard deviations
of the process outputs
6
Six Sigma Quality (Continued)
Six Sigma allows managers to readily
describe process performance using a
common metric: Defects Per Million
Opportunities (DPMO)
1,000,000x
unitsofNo.x
unit
pererrorfor
iesopportunit
ofNumber
defectsofNumber










=DPMO
7
Six Sigma Quality (Continued)
Example of Defects Per Million
Opportunities (DPMO) calculation.
Suppose we observe 200 letters
delivered incorrectly to the wrong
addresses in a small city during a
single day when a total of 200,000
letters were delivered. What is the
DPMO in this situation?
Example of Defects Per Million
Opportunities (DPMO) calculation.
Suppose we observe 200 letters
delivered incorrectly to the wrong
addresses in a small city during a
single day when a total of 200,000
letters were delivered. What is the
DPMO in this situation?
[ ]
000,1== 1,000,000x
200,000x1
200
DPMO
So, for every one
million letters
delivered this
city’s postal
managers can
expect to have
1,000 letters
incorrectly sent
to the wrong
address.
So, for every one
million letters
delivered this
city’s postal
managers can
expect to have
1,000 letters
incorrectly sent
to the wrong
address.
Cost of Quality: What might that DPMO mean in terms
of over-time employment to correct the errors?
Cost of Quality: What might that DPMO mean in terms
of over-time employment to correct the errors?
8
Six Sigma Quality: DMAIC Cycle
Define, Measure, Analyze, Improve, and
Control (DMAIC)
Developed by General Electric as a
means of focusing effort on quality
using a methodological approach
Overall focus of the methodology is to
understand and achieve what the
customer wants
A 6-sigma program seeks to reduce the
variation in the processes that lead to
these defects
DMAIC consists of five steps….
9
Six Sigma Quality: DMAIC Cycle (Continued)
1. Define (D)
2. Measure (M)
3. Analyze (A)
4. Improve (I)
5. Control (C)
Customers and their priorities
Process and its performance
Causes of defects
Remove causes of defects
Maintain quality
10
Example to illustrate the process…
We are the maker of this cereal. Consumer
Reports has just published an article that shows
that we frequently have less than 15 ounces of
cereal in a box.
What should we do?
11
Step 1 - Define
What is the critical-to-quality characteristic?
The CTQ (critical-to-quality) characteristic in
this case is the weight of the cereal in the box.
12
2 - Measure
How would we measure to evaluate the extent
of the problem?
What are acceptable limits on this measure?
13
2 – Measure (continued)
Let’s assume that the government says that we
must be within ± 5 percent of the weight
advertised on the box.
Upper Tolerance Limit = 16 + .05(16) = 16.8
ounces
Lower Tolerance Limit = 16 – .05(16) = 15.2
ounces
14
2. Measure (continued)
We go out and buy 1,000 boxes of cereal and
find that they weight an average of 15.875
ounces with a standard deviation of .529
ounces.
What percentage of boxes are outside the
tolerance limits?
15
Upper Tolerance
= 16.8
Lower Tolerance
= 15.2
Process
Mean = 15.875
Std. Dev. = .529
What percentage of boxes are defective (i.e. less than 15.2 oz)?
Z = (x – Mean)/Std. Dev. = (15.2 – 15.875)/.529 = -1.276
NORMSDIST(Z) = NORMSDIST(-1.276) = .100978
Approximately, 10 percent of the boxes have less than 15.2
Ounces of cereal in them!
16
Step 3 - Analyze - How can we
improve the capability of our cereal
box filling process?
Decrease Variation
Center Process
Increase Specifications
17
Step 4 – Improve – How good is good enough?Step 4 – Improve – How good is good enough?
Motorola’s “Six Sigma”Motorola’s “Six Sigma”
6σ minimum from process center
to nearest spec
1 23 1 02 3
12σ
6σ
18
Motorola’s “Six Sigma”Motorola’s “Six Sigma”
Implies 2 ppB “bad” with no process shift
With 1.5σ shift in either direction from center (process
will move), implies 3.4 ppm “bad”.
1 23 1 02 3
12σ
19
Step 5 – ControlStep 5 – Control
Statistical Process Control (SPC)
Use data from the actual process
Estimate distributions
Look at capability - is good quality
possible
Statistically monitor the process
over time
20
Analytical Tools for Six Sigma and Continuous
Improvement: Flow Chart
No,
Continue…
Material
Received
from
Supplier
Inspect
Material for
Defects
Defects
found?
Return to
Supplier
for Credit
Yes
Can be used to
find quality
problems
Can be used to
find quality
problems
21
Analytical Tools for Six Sigma and Continuous
Improvement: Run Chart
Can be used to identify
when equipment or
processes are not
behaving according to
specifications
Can be used to identify
when equipment or
processes are not
behaving according to
specifications
0.44
0.46
0.48
0.5
0.52
0.54
0.56
0.58
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Time (Hours)
Diameter
22
Analytical Tools for Six Sigma and Continuous Improvement:
Pareto Analysis
Can be used
to find when
80% of the
problems
may be
attributed to
20% of the
causes
Can be used
to find when
80% of the
problems
may be
attributed to
20% of the
causes
Assy.
Instruct.
Frequency
Design Purch. Training
80%
23
Analytical Tools for Six Sigma and Continuous
Improvement: Checksheet
Billing Errors
Wrong Account
Wrong Amount
A/R Errors
Wrong Account
Wrong Amount
Monday
Can be used to keep track of
defects or used to make sure
people collect data in a
correct manner
Can be used to keep track of
defects or used to make sure
people collect data in a
correct manner
24
Analytical Tools for Six Sigma and Continuous
Improvement: Histogram
NumberofLots
Data Ranges
Defects
in lot
0 1 2 3 4
Can be used to identify the frequency of quality
defect occurrence and display quality
performance
Can be used to identify the frequency of quality
defect occurrence and display quality
performance
25
Analytical Tools for Six Sigma and Continuous
Improvement: Cause & Effect Diagram
Effect
ManMachine
MaterialMethod
Environment
Possible causes:Possible causes: The results
or effect
The results
or effect
Can be used to systematically track backwards to
find a possible cause of a quality problem (or
effect)
Can be used to systematically track backwards to
find a possible cause of a quality problem (or
effect)
26
Analytical Tools for Six Sigma and Continuous
Improvement: Control Charts
Can be used to monitor ongoing production process
quality and quality conformance to stated standards of
quality
Can be used to monitor ongoing production process
quality and quality conformance to stated standards of
quality
970
980
990
1000
1010
1020
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
LCL
UCL
27
Other Six Sigma Tools
Failure Mode and Effect Analysis (DMEA)
is a structured approach to identify,
estimate, prioritize, and evaluate risk of
possible failures at each stage in the
process
Design of Experiments (DOE) a statistical
test to determine cause-and-effect
relationships between process variables
and output
28
Six Sigma Roles and Responsibilities
1. Executive leaders must champion the
process of improvement
2. Corporation-wide training in Six Sigma
concepts and tools
3. Setting stretch objectives for
improvement
4. Continuous reinforcement and rewards
29
The Shingo System: Fail-Safe Design
Shingo’s argument:
SQC methods do not prevent defects
Defects arise when people make errors
Defects can be prevented by providing
workers with feedback on errors
Poka-Yoke includes:
Checklists
Special tooling that prevents workers from
making errors
30
ISO 9000
Series of standards agreed upon by the
International Organization for
Standardization (ISO)
Adopted in 1987
More than 100 countries
A prerequisite for global competition?
ISO 9000 directs you to "document
what you do and then do as you
documented"
31
Three Forms of ISO Certification
1. First party: A firm audits itself against
ISO 9000 standards
2. Second party: A customer audits its
supplier
3. Third party: A "qualified" national or
international standards or certifying
agency serves as auditor
32
External Benchmarking Steps
1. Identify those processes needing
improvement
2. Identify a firm that is the world leader
in performing the process
3. Contact the managers of that company
and make a personal visit to interview
managers and workers
4. Analyze data
33
Service Quality Measurement:Servqual
 A perceived service quality
questionnaire survey methodology
 Examines “Dimensions of Service
Quality” including: Reliability,
Responsiveness, Assurance, Empathy,
and Tangibles (e.g., appearance of
physical facilities, equipment, etc.)
34
Service Quality Measurement: Servqual
(Continued)
 New version of this methodology is
called “e-Service Quality” dealing
service on the Internet
 Dimensions of Service Quality on the e-
Service methodology include:
Reliability, Responsiveness, Access,
Flexibility, Ease of Navigation,
Efficiency, Assurance/Trust,
Security/Privacy, Price Knowledge, Site
Aesthetics, and
Customization/Personalization

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Quality management

  • 1. 1 Total Quality Management Defined Quality Specifications and Costs Six Sigma Quality and Tools External Benchmarking ISO 9000 Service Quality Measurement OBJECTIVES
  • 2. 2 Total Quality Management (TQM) Total quality management is defined as managing the entire organization so that it excels on all dimensions of products and services that are important to the customer
  • 3. 3 Quality Specifications Design quality: Inherent value of the product in the marketplace Dimensions include: Performance, Features, Reliability/Durability, Serviceability, Aesthetics, and Perceived Quality. Conformance quality: Degree to which the product or service design specifications are met
  • 4. 4 Costs of Quality External Failure Costs Appraisal Costs Prevention Costs Internal Failure Costs Costs of Quality
  • 5. 5 Six Sigma Quality A philosophy and set of methods companies use to eliminate defects in their products and processes Seeks to reduce variation in the processes that lead to product defects The name, “six sigma” refers to the variation that exists within plus or minus three standard deviations of the process outputs
  • 6. 6 Six Sigma Quality (Continued) Six Sigma allows managers to readily describe process performance using a common metric: Defects Per Million Opportunities (DPMO) 1,000,000x unitsofNo.x unit pererrorfor iesopportunit ofNumber defectsofNumber           =DPMO
  • 7. 7 Six Sigma Quality (Continued) Example of Defects Per Million Opportunities (DPMO) calculation. Suppose we observe 200 letters delivered incorrectly to the wrong addresses in a small city during a single day when a total of 200,000 letters were delivered. What is the DPMO in this situation? Example of Defects Per Million Opportunities (DPMO) calculation. Suppose we observe 200 letters delivered incorrectly to the wrong addresses in a small city during a single day when a total of 200,000 letters were delivered. What is the DPMO in this situation? [ ] 000,1== 1,000,000x 200,000x1 200 DPMO So, for every one million letters delivered this city’s postal managers can expect to have 1,000 letters incorrectly sent to the wrong address. So, for every one million letters delivered this city’s postal managers can expect to have 1,000 letters incorrectly sent to the wrong address. Cost of Quality: What might that DPMO mean in terms of over-time employment to correct the errors? Cost of Quality: What might that DPMO mean in terms of over-time employment to correct the errors?
  • 8. 8 Six Sigma Quality: DMAIC Cycle Define, Measure, Analyze, Improve, and Control (DMAIC) Developed by General Electric as a means of focusing effort on quality using a methodological approach Overall focus of the methodology is to understand and achieve what the customer wants A 6-sigma program seeks to reduce the variation in the processes that lead to these defects DMAIC consists of five steps….
  • 9. 9 Six Sigma Quality: DMAIC Cycle (Continued) 1. Define (D) 2. Measure (M) 3. Analyze (A) 4. Improve (I) 5. Control (C) Customers and their priorities Process and its performance Causes of defects Remove causes of defects Maintain quality
  • 10. 10 Example to illustrate the process… We are the maker of this cereal. Consumer Reports has just published an article that shows that we frequently have less than 15 ounces of cereal in a box. What should we do?
  • 11. 11 Step 1 - Define What is the critical-to-quality characteristic? The CTQ (critical-to-quality) characteristic in this case is the weight of the cereal in the box.
  • 12. 12 2 - Measure How would we measure to evaluate the extent of the problem? What are acceptable limits on this measure?
  • 13. 13 2 – Measure (continued) Let’s assume that the government says that we must be within ± 5 percent of the weight advertised on the box. Upper Tolerance Limit = 16 + .05(16) = 16.8 ounces Lower Tolerance Limit = 16 – .05(16) = 15.2 ounces
  • 14. 14 2. Measure (continued) We go out and buy 1,000 boxes of cereal and find that they weight an average of 15.875 ounces with a standard deviation of .529 ounces. What percentage of boxes are outside the tolerance limits?
  • 15. 15 Upper Tolerance = 16.8 Lower Tolerance = 15.2 Process Mean = 15.875 Std. Dev. = .529 What percentage of boxes are defective (i.e. less than 15.2 oz)? Z = (x – Mean)/Std. Dev. = (15.2 – 15.875)/.529 = -1.276 NORMSDIST(Z) = NORMSDIST(-1.276) = .100978 Approximately, 10 percent of the boxes have less than 15.2 Ounces of cereal in them!
  • 16. 16 Step 3 - Analyze - How can we improve the capability of our cereal box filling process? Decrease Variation Center Process Increase Specifications
  • 17. 17 Step 4 – Improve – How good is good enough?Step 4 – Improve – How good is good enough? Motorola’s “Six Sigma”Motorola’s “Six Sigma” 6σ minimum from process center to nearest spec 1 23 1 02 3 12σ 6σ
  • 18. 18 Motorola’s “Six Sigma”Motorola’s “Six Sigma” Implies 2 ppB “bad” with no process shift With 1.5σ shift in either direction from center (process will move), implies 3.4 ppm “bad”. 1 23 1 02 3 12σ
  • 19. 19 Step 5 – ControlStep 5 – Control Statistical Process Control (SPC) Use data from the actual process Estimate distributions Look at capability - is good quality possible Statistically monitor the process over time
  • 20. 20 Analytical Tools for Six Sigma and Continuous Improvement: Flow Chart No, Continue… Material Received from Supplier Inspect Material for Defects Defects found? Return to Supplier for Credit Yes Can be used to find quality problems Can be used to find quality problems
  • 21. 21 Analytical Tools for Six Sigma and Continuous Improvement: Run Chart Can be used to identify when equipment or processes are not behaving according to specifications Can be used to identify when equipment or processes are not behaving according to specifications 0.44 0.46 0.48 0.5 0.52 0.54 0.56 0.58 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Time (Hours) Diameter
  • 22. 22 Analytical Tools for Six Sigma and Continuous Improvement: Pareto Analysis Can be used to find when 80% of the problems may be attributed to 20% of the causes Can be used to find when 80% of the problems may be attributed to 20% of the causes Assy. Instruct. Frequency Design Purch. Training 80%
  • 23. 23 Analytical Tools for Six Sigma and Continuous Improvement: Checksheet Billing Errors Wrong Account Wrong Amount A/R Errors Wrong Account Wrong Amount Monday Can be used to keep track of defects or used to make sure people collect data in a correct manner Can be used to keep track of defects or used to make sure people collect data in a correct manner
  • 24. 24 Analytical Tools for Six Sigma and Continuous Improvement: Histogram NumberofLots Data Ranges Defects in lot 0 1 2 3 4 Can be used to identify the frequency of quality defect occurrence and display quality performance Can be used to identify the frequency of quality defect occurrence and display quality performance
  • 25. 25 Analytical Tools for Six Sigma and Continuous Improvement: Cause & Effect Diagram Effect ManMachine MaterialMethod Environment Possible causes:Possible causes: The results or effect The results or effect Can be used to systematically track backwards to find a possible cause of a quality problem (or effect) Can be used to systematically track backwards to find a possible cause of a quality problem (or effect)
  • 26. 26 Analytical Tools for Six Sigma and Continuous Improvement: Control Charts Can be used to monitor ongoing production process quality and quality conformance to stated standards of quality Can be used to monitor ongoing production process quality and quality conformance to stated standards of quality 970 980 990 1000 1010 1020 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 LCL UCL
  • 27. 27 Other Six Sigma Tools Failure Mode and Effect Analysis (DMEA) is a structured approach to identify, estimate, prioritize, and evaluate risk of possible failures at each stage in the process Design of Experiments (DOE) a statistical test to determine cause-and-effect relationships between process variables and output
  • 28. 28 Six Sigma Roles and Responsibilities 1. Executive leaders must champion the process of improvement 2. Corporation-wide training in Six Sigma concepts and tools 3. Setting stretch objectives for improvement 4. Continuous reinforcement and rewards
  • 29. 29 The Shingo System: Fail-Safe Design Shingo’s argument: SQC methods do not prevent defects Defects arise when people make errors Defects can be prevented by providing workers with feedback on errors Poka-Yoke includes: Checklists Special tooling that prevents workers from making errors
  • 30. 30 ISO 9000 Series of standards agreed upon by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) Adopted in 1987 More than 100 countries A prerequisite for global competition? ISO 9000 directs you to "document what you do and then do as you documented"
  • 31. 31 Three Forms of ISO Certification 1. First party: A firm audits itself against ISO 9000 standards 2. Second party: A customer audits its supplier 3. Third party: A "qualified" national or international standards or certifying agency serves as auditor
  • 32. 32 External Benchmarking Steps 1. Identify those processes needing improvement 2. Identify a firm that is the world leader in performing the process 3. Contact the managers of that company and make a personal visit to interview managers and workers 4. Analyze data
  • 33. 33 Service Quality Measurement:Servqual  A perceived service quality questionnaire survey methodology  Examines “Dimensions of Service Quality” including: Reliability, Responsiveness, Assurance, Empathy, and Tangibles (e.g., appearance of physical facilities, equipment, etc.)
  • 34. 34 Service Quality Measurement: Servqual (Continued)  New version of this methodology is called “e-Service Quality” dealing service on the Internet  Dimensions of Service Quality on the e- Service methodology include: Reliability, Responsiveness, Access, Flexibility, Ease of Navigation, Efficiency, Assurance/Trust, Security/Privacy, Price Knowledge, Site Aesthetics, and Customization/Personalization