school of psychology

1. Ch-5: Cognitive Perspective

3. John Stuart Mill (1843/1988): pioneering work on cognitive psychology as an
experimental science of mind.
Fechner (1860/1966): Cognitive events could be studied experimentally.
Ebbinghaus (1885/1964): experimental work on learning and memory.
Würzburg school (Kulpe): of experimental investigation of thought at the
Psychological Institute of the University of Würzburg in Germany in the first
decade of the 20th century. school conducted research on a wider array of
cognitive topics.
William James’s book: The Principles of Psychology (1890/1950) summarized
considerable research on cognition and suggested many additional
possibilities.
Brook’s (2007) The Prehistory of Cognitive Science details these
contributions through James.
Frederic Charles Bartlett (1886–1969), in his book Remembering: A Study in
Experimental and Social Psychology (1932), demonstrated how memory is
influenced more by personal, cognitive themes or schema than by the
mechanical laws of association. Bartlett found consistent patterns in how
memory degraded over time, but also in how details became unconsciously
reconstructed to preserve the overall meaning and coherence.

4. Throughout most of psychology’s history, human cognition was
studied philosophically.
J. S. Mill provided the framework within which human cognition could
be studied scientifically.
Fechner, Ebbinghaus, James, Bartlett, and Piaget were among the
first psychologists to demonstrate that human cognition could be
studied experimentally.
Among the pioneers of experimental cognitive psychology were the
Gestalt psychologists, Hebb, Wiener, Shannon, and Weaver. During
the 1950s, interest in experimental cognitive psychology increased
mainly because of the efforts of such individuals as George Miller,
Broadbent, Lashley, Festinger, Bruner, and Chomsky, the humanistic
psychologists, and the psychoanalysts.
In 1960 Hebb urged that the rigorous scientific methods utilized by the
behaviorists to study behavior be applied to the study of human
cognition.

5. In 1960, Miller and Bruner founded the Center for Cognitive Studies at
Harvard.
In 1962 and 1963, Egger and Neal Miller demonstrated that classical conditioning
could not be understood in terms of associative principles alone. Rather, the
information conveyed by the stimuli involved had to be considered. In 1967
Neisser synthesized the diverse findings within experimental cognitive
psychology, using a few basic principles primarily from information theory.
In 1965 Bruner, and in 1969 George Miller served as president of the APA,
emphasized on experimental cognitive psychology.
In 1950 Alan Turing created the field of Artificial Intelligence. AI
attempts to simulate or duplicate the intelligence exhibited by humans,
using nonhuman machines such as computers.
In the late 1970s, information processing psychologists joined with
researchers from other disciplines to form cognitive science.

6. The Cognitive Perspective
This approach focuses on how internal thoughts and
feelings influence one's behavior. The cognitive approach
emphasizes the importance of memory, perception and attention,
language, decision-making and problem-solving.

7. The Cognitive Behavioral Perspective
Our thoughts, emotions, body sensations, and behavior are
all connected, and that what we think and do affects the way we
feel.
Thousands of research trials have demonstrated that CBT is an
effective treatment for conditions from anxiety and depression to pain
and insomnia.

8. Theories of Cognitive Perspective
Cognitive perspective by Aaron Beck
Cognitive perspective by Albert Ellis
Cognitive perspective of Appraisal and Coping

9. Cognitive perspective by Aaron Beck
Aaron Temkin Beck (1921-2021), was an
American psychiatrist who was a professor in
the department of psychiatry at the University
of Pennsylvania.
He is regarded as the father of cognitive
therapy and cognitive behavioral therapy.

10. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy by Aaron Beck
Patients with depression frequently verbalize thoughts that are
objectively untrue.
Beck was able to pinpoint a set of characteristic “cognitive distortions” in
their thinking patterns, leading him to start viewing depression as a
cognitive disorder rather than a mood disorder.
He published Cognitive Therapy for Depression (Beck, Rush, Shaw,
and Emery, 1979) after conducting a study that demonstrated the
effectiveness of CBT.

11. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy by Aaron Beck

12. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy by Aaron Beck
CBT is all about the relationship between thoughts, emotions, and behavior. It
centers on three aspects of the way people think:
1. Automatic Thoughts
interpreting events immediately, without or before objective analysis of the
situation. According to the model, these thoughts can shape both a person’s
emotions and behaviors as a result. When automatic thoughts are categorized
as dysfunctional, they may be exaggerated, distorted, or incorrect or unhelpful
in some other way. (e.g., interpreting an angry, irritated mood of boss).
2. Underlying Beliefs
Underlying beliefs refer to the core foundations of how someone sees
themselves and the world. These are often shaped by childhood or other past
experiences, and they can have the power to color a person’s interpretation of
events in their life, both large and small. So when they’re considered to be
dysfunctional, they can negatively impact a person’s life. For example, it’s easy
to see how someone’s flawed but fundamental belief that they are unlovable
could create challenges in their interpersonal relationships.

13. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy by Aaron Beck
3. Cognitive Distortions
Cognitive distortions are errors in logic that can lead to false or incorrect
conclusions. There are around a dozen commonly recognized cognitive distortions,
or flawed patterns of thinking. Some cognitive distortions include:
• Negative filtering, when a person places an outsize focus on the negative, or filters
most or all situations through a negative lens. (“Everyone said I nailed that work
presentation, but I know I failed because of those technical difficulties I had at the
beginning.”)
• Polarized thinking, or all-or-nothing thinking, is when a person can only see two
potential outcomes of a situation—incredible or terrible—rather than acknowledging
the true, broad range. (“Either I pass the exam, or I’m a complete failure.”)
• Overgeneralization, which is when a person applies the context of one outcome to all
future, similar situations. (“I’ve had my heart broken; I’m done dating for good.”)
• Mind reading, which is when a person guesses what someone else might be thinking
and acts accordingly, as if it were the confirmed truth. (“My partner seems distracted;
they must be getting tired of me and wanting to break up.”)
• Catastrophizing, which is when a person focuses on the worst-case-scenario. (“My
friend was supposed to meet me at noon, and it’s already ten minutes after. She’s
probably been in a terrible accident!”)
• Personalization, which is when a person interprets all kinds of events as relating to
them, even when this is not the case. (“No one is talking to me at this party because
everyone thinks my outfit is a disaster.”)

14. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy by Aaron Beck
A central tenet of the cognitive theory is that our thinking influences our
emotional and behavioral experiences and vice versa.
The basic model depicts the interrelationships among thoughts,
feelings, and behaviors

15. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy by Aaron Beck
Beck originally postulated that individuals derive meaning from their
experiences and, with time, rely on what he called cognitive schemas
(i.e., hypothetical organizing structures of experience represented in
thoughts) to provide meaning to experience. For example, someone
with a history of limited close relationships may, over time, develop a
schema like ‘I am unlovable.’ Schemas can constitute particular
vulnerabilities to interpret certain types of experiences inaccurately.
The same concept applies in therapy, there is an emphasis on working
toward changing one's thoughts as a means to altering feelings and
behaviors.

16. Application of CBT
Cognitive behavioral therapy has been widely used for the effective treatment
for conditions and disorders such as:
• Substance abuse. One study found that CBT was highly effective in
reducing relapse in a sample of people who had quit nicotine.
• Schizophrenia. Evidence has revealed that CBT can have a beneficial effect
on symptoms of schizophrenia, especially for patients who suffer from acute
episodes.
• Depression. CBT has been shown to be more effective for depression than
no treatment and some other treatments such as relaxation techniques or
psychodynamic therapy.
• Bipolar disorder. While not typically pursued as a standalone therapy for this
disorder, CBT has been shown to be somewhat effective in preventing
relapse in bipolar patients.
• Anxiety disorders. The review states that, “In general, CBT is a reliable first-
line approach for treatment of this class of disorders.”
Cognitive behavioral therapy has also been studied as an effective or
potentially effective treatment for a range of other conditions, disorders, and
situations. Many people in many different circumstances can benefit from this
method.

17. Cognitive perspective by Albert Ellis
Albert Ellis (1913 – 2007) was an American
psychologist and psychotherapist who founded
Rational-Emotive Therapy, which offers a more
active, direct approach to treating psychological
disorders than traditional psychoanalytic models.
Ellis believed that through rational analysis and
cognitive reconstruction, people could understand
their self-defeatingness in light of their core
irrational beliefs and then develop more rational
constructs.
It’s an approach that helps you identify irrational
beliefs and negative thought patterns that may lead
to emotional or behavioral issues.

18. Rational-Emotive Therapy by Albert Ellis
REBT is an action-oriented approach, focusing on helping people deal
with irrational beliefs and learn how to manage their emotions,
thoughts, and behaviors in a healthier, more realistic way.
According to REBT, our cognition, emotions, and behavior are
connected. In order to understand the impact of events and situations
that people encounter throughout life, it’s essential to look at the beliefs
people hold about these experiences and the emotions that arise as a
result of those beliefs.
The goal of REBT is to help people recognize and alter those beliefs
and negative thinking patterns in order to overcome psychological
problems and mental distress.

19. The ABC Model of REBT
This model explains how, while we may blame external events for our
unhappiness, it is our interpretation of these events that truly lies at the heart of
our psychological distress.
• A: Activating event, which is when something happens in the environment
around you.
• B: Belief, which describes your thoughts about the event or situation.
• C: Consequence, which is your emotional response to your belief.

20. The ABC Model of REBT
During REBT, the therapist will help you learn how to apply the ABC model to your
daily life. If you’re feeling depressed due to a conflict in your relationship, for
example, your therapist may help you identify the activating event for your problem
before encouraging you to figure out which beliefs led to your negative feelings.
They would then work with you to change those beliefs and, ultimately, your
emotional response to the conflict.
An important step in this process is recognizing the underlying beliefs that lead to
psychological distress. In many cases, these are reflected as absolutes, as in "I
must," "I should," or "I can’t." Some of the most common irrational beliefs include:
• Feeling excessively upset over other people’s mistakes or misconduct
• Believing that you must be perfectly competent and successful in everything to be
valued and worthwhile
• Believing that you will be happier if you avoid life’s difficulties or challenges
• Feeling that you have no control over your own happiness; that your contentment and
joy are dependent upon external forces
Holding unyielding beliefs like these makes it almost impossible to respond to
activating situations in a psychologically healthy way. Possessing rigid
expectations of ourselves and others only leads to disappointment, retaliation,
regret, and anxiety.

21. The ABC Model of REBT

22. Techniques used in REBT
REBT uses three main types of techniques, which correspond with the ABCs.
Problem-solving techniques: to address the activating event (A). They often include
working to develop:
problem-solving skills
assertiveness
social skills
decision-making skills
conflict resolution skills
Cognitive restructuring techniques: to help you to change irrational beliefs (B). They
might include:
logical or rationalizing techniques
guided imagery and visualization
reframing, or looking at events in a different way
humor and irony
exposure to a feared situation
disputing irrational thoughts
Coping techniques: to help you better manage the emotional consequences (C) of
irrational thoughts. These coping techniques may include:
relaxation
hypnosis
meditation

23. Application of REBT
Once the irrational belief patterns are identified, a therapist will help to
develop strategies to replace them with more rational thought patterns.
REBT can be particularly helpful for people living with a variety of
issues, including:
• depression
• anxiety
• addictive behaviors
• phobias
• overwhelming feelings of anger, guilt, or rage
• procrastination
• disordered eating habits
• aggression
• sleep problems

24. Theory of Cognitive Appraisal and Coping
The concept of cognitive appraisal was proposed
in 1966 by psychologist Richard Lazarus in the
book Psychological Stress and Coping Process.
The model "Theory of Cognitive Appraisal" was
proposed by Lazarus and Folkman in 1984 and
it explained the mental process which
influence of the stressors.
According to this theory, stress is perceived as
the imbalance between the demands placed
on the individual and the individual's
resources to cope.

25. Theory of Cognitive Appraisal and Coping
According to Richard Lazarus, stress is a two-way process; it involves
the production of stressors by the environment, and the response of an
individual subjected to these stressors. His conception regarding stress
led to the theory of cognitive appraisal.
Cognitive Appraisal
Cognitive appraisal occurs when a person considers two major factors
that majorly contribute in his response to stress. These two factors
include:
1.The threatening tendency of the stress to the individual, and
2.The assessment of resources required to minimize, tolerate or
eradicate the stressor and the stress it produces.
In general, cognitive appraisal is divided into two types or stages:
primary and secondary appraisal.

26. Primary Appraisal
In the stage of primary appraisal, an individual tends to ask questions
like, “What does this stressor and/ or situation mean?”, and, “How can it
influence me?” According to psychologists, the three typical answers to these
questions are:
1."this is not important"
2."this is good"
3."this is stressful"
(e.g., situation of a heavy rain).
When you see the stressor as a threat, you view it as something that will
cause future harm, such as failure in exams or getting fired from job.
When you look at it as a challenge, you develop a positive stress response
because you expect the stressor to lead you to a higher class ranking, or a
better employment.
On the other hand, seeing the stressor as a “harm-loss” means that the
damage has already been experiences, (e.g., injuries after a recent accident).

27. Secondary Appraisal
• takes place simultaneously with the primary appraisal. In fact, there are times
that secondary appraisal becomes the cause of a primary appraisal.
• Secondary appraisals involve those feelings related to dealing with the
stressor or the stress it produces. Uttering statements like, “I can do it if I do my
best”, “I will try whether my chances of success are high or not”, and “If this way fails, I
can always try another method” indicates positive secondary appraisal. In
contrast to these, statements like, “I can’t do it; I know I will fail”, “I will not do it
because no one believes I can” and, “I won’t try because my chances are
low” indicate negative secondary appraisal.
• Although primary and secondary appraisals are often a result of an encounter
with a stressor, stress doesn’t always happen with cognitive appraisal. (e.g., a
sudden disaster like an earthquake when the person doesn’t have more time
to think about it, yet he still feels stressful about the situation).

29. • A cognitive appraisal is our interpretation of the eliciting event and of our
bodily reactions to the eliciting event.
• Cognitive appraisal could occur unconsciously, as James-Lange suggested,
or consciously.
• In general, cognitive appraisal theorists have noticed that people experience
different emotions in response to the same eliciting event.

30. Emotion focused coping
• Deals with the emotional
response of the stressor.
• strategies involve attempts
to change the way that the
stressor is construed
through techniques such as
distancing and avoidance.
Problem focused coping
• Deals with the stressors
directly.
• strategies involve
activities directly aimed at
eliminating the source of
stress (i.e., job loss) such
as proactive job search
Coping
Lazarus and Folkman suggested that Coping is closely related to the concept
of cognitive appraisal and is characterized as “the cognitive and behavioral
efforts made to master, tolerate, or reduce external and internal demands and
conflicts among them.”

31. Application