1. TK00000883
V-srpvists'.'-•:!" ' -•'" . . .
Instiuit Tfknoloy! .'-.AHA
40-150 Shah Alam
Darul
WATER TREATMENT IN
DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
CASE STUDY
MALAYSIA
BY
SA.F. SYED YUSOFF
2 3 N3V 1993
PERCUSTAKAA^ lU -''

2. THFS1S KAK1TANGAN
WATER TREATMENT IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
CASE STUDY : MALAYSIA
BY
SYED ABDUL FATTAH SYED YUSOFF
Submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of
MSc (Eng) TROPICAL PUBLIC HEALTH ENGINEERING
T™h, e U,,n i•v ersity ofc iL eedJs
Perkhidmatan Pem>»r*
p^ii Tun b(!ul Ra»*
Institut Teknoloni
4U450 Shah
Dmrul
Department of Civil Engineering
September 1993
The candidate confirms that the work submitted is his own and that appropriate credit
has been given where reference has been made to the work of others.
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3. Abstract
This dissertation is a study on water treatment in developing countries
and Malaysia is taken as a case study. The scope of this dissertation
cover water from the intake at the source to the final process before
distribution. This is not an attempt to change the existing system but
rather to see what can be offered, or the advantages of better systems for
the future in developing countries and in this case , Malaysia.
In Malaysia the method use for urban water treatment is the rapid gravity
filtration system and the intake is from surface water normally rivers. The
problems faced by this water treatment plant can be summarised as
below:
1. Intake Source
2. Water Treatment Plant
3. Storage and Distribution
1. Intake Source
The problem here is the source, as most rivers in Malaysia are fast
flowing and silt-laden. The water is heavily contaminated from:
agricultural discharge (oil-palm and rubber), organic waste (sewage);
heavy metals and toxic chemicals (factories). These three principal
sources of pollution in rivers can be overcome by introducing treatment
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ii

4. prior to discharge to public water courses. Treatment will only be
installed if it is compulsary or a legislative requirement for any discharge
into a public water course . The monitoring of the river quality has to be
done systematically to ensure that contaminated water does not reach the
water treatment plant. Goverment agencies such as the Ministry of Health
and the Department of Environment should work together to prosecute
those who contaminate the river. The intake is normally a pump where
water from the river is pumped to a presettling reservoir (plain
sedimentation tank) that has a capacity of 2 to 3 days storage. This
reservoir is sometimes being pretreated with chlorine or is aerated. From
this reservoir the water is pumped to the treatment plant.
2. Water Treatment Plant
The water treatment plant receives water from the plain sedimentation
tank and there are many types of process in the plant depending on the
quality of water it receives. Some of the processes include: pretreatment,
chemical coagulation, rapid mixing, flocculation, sedimentation, filtration
(rapid gravity filter) and disinfection (normally chlorine gas). The
monitoring of raw water and treated water is done daily from samples
taken during the treatment process. For chemical coagulation, laboratory
jar tests are used to assess the optimum pH, type and range of dose of
primary coagulant and the suitability of coagulant aids. Most of the water
treatment plant in developing countries and in Malaysia, except for the
new treatment plants, are designed to treat raw water quality as it was a
few decades ago. The raw water quality at present is too contaminated so
that the treatment plant could not hope to produce a satisfactory quality
of treated water.Fluoride is added to all treated water in Malaysia but
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5. improper dosage (greater than 2mg/l) of fluoride does occur which result
in mottling of tooth enamel and staining of teeth (fluorosis). The
disinfection used is chlorine and the source is chlorine gas obtained as
liquefied gas in cylinders. The chlorine dose must be sufficient to
produce the required quality of water and a residual of chlorine remains
which provides protection against contamination occurring during
distribution. Chlorine needs at least half-an-hour in contact with water to
disinfect it. It is therefore applied before the water enters a storage tank,
so that it can take effect during storage.
3. Storage and Distribution
In Malaysia, the storage of water before distribution is in large concrete
tanks and distribution is generally by gravity except in high buildings
where pumps have to be installed. One of the problems with water
distribution is water loss as leakage which results in less water pressure
than is inadequate to reach some areas. Water leakage is sometimes
illegal or by unauthorised connections made to the water mains by private
individuals normally urban squaters. As water in Malaysia is metered
then this loss or unaccounted water results in loss of revenue to the water
authority. Another problem is the damage done to water mains or
leakages at taps. Public education is carried out through the mass-media
by encouraging them to report immediately to the water supply
department any leakages in the water mains.
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IV

6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author wishes to acknowledge with grateful appreciation to his supervisor,
Dr. Nigel Horan for his advice and guidance throughout the duration of this
discertation.
The author would also like to thank Prof. Jangi, Mohamad Jalal Bonkik and the
computing staff for the valuable assistance they have given.
Special thanks to Aishah and the children for their patience and support without
them this work could not be produced.
The author would also like to thank his employer, MARA Institute Of
Technology for allowing him to pursue this course.
Finally, the ultimate gratitude is to God Who has made all possible.
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7. CONTENTS
Abstract ii
Acknowledgement v
Contents vi
List of Figures x
List of Tables xi
Abbreviation xii
Synopsis xiv
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background 1
1.2 Case Study - Malaysia 3
1.3 Water Treatment - Urban 5
1.3.1 Screening 6
1.3.2 Aeration 6
1.3.3 Coagulation and Flocculation 7
1.3.4 Sedimentation 7
1.3.5 Filtration 8
1.3.6 Disinfection 9
1.4 Rural water Treatment 9
1.4.1 Rainwater 9
1.4.2 Springs 10
1.4.3 Hand Dug Wells 10
1.4.4Tubewells 11
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8. CHAPTER!
TYPES OF WATER TREATMENT AVAILABLE
2.1 Introduction 12
2.1.1 Ion Exchange 12
2.1.2 Reverse Osmosis 13
2.1.3 Electrodialysis 14
2.1.4 Freshwater Distillation 15
2.1.5Ozonation 15
2.1.6 Ultraviolet Radiation 16
2.1.7 Other Disinfectants 16
2.1.8 Activated Carbon (PAC and GAC) Treatment 17
2.2 Treatment Options Applicable To Malaysia In Future 18
2.2.1 Introduction 18
2.2.2 Case Study - Bintulu Water Treatment Works In East Malaysia 18
2.2.3 Case Study - The Upgrading Of The Sungai Linggi Water Treatment
Plant For Quality Enhancement 19
CHAPTERS
ROLE OF GOVERNMENT AGENCIES
3.1 Introduction 23
3.2 Water Supply Department(WSD) 23
3.2.1 At Federal Level - Federal Headquarters of WSD, Kuala Lumpur 23
3.2.2 At State Level - State WSD Office 24
3.2.3 At District Level - District WSD Office 24
3.3 Ministry Of Health (MOH) 25
3.3.1 At Federal Level - All Public Water Supplies 25
3.3.2 At State Level - All Public Water Supplies 25
3.3.3 At District Level - All Public Water Supplies 26
3.4 Department Of Chemistry (DOC) 26
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9. 3.4.1 At Federal Level - Federal DOC 26
3.4.2 Regional DOC 26
3.5 Department Of Environment(DOE) 27
3.5.1 Headquarters Of DOE 27
3.5.2 Regional Office DOE 27
3.6 Comments On The Role Of Government Agencies 28
CHAPTER 4:
SURVEILLANCE OF POTABLE WATER
4.1 Introduction 29
4.1.1 The Need For A Potable Water Quality Programme 30
4.1.2 Objective Of Programme 31
4.1.3 Scope Of The Programme 31
4.2 Key Programme Elements 32
4.2.1 Monitoring 32
4.2.2 Sanitary Survey 34
4.2.3 Data Processing & Evaluation 40
4.2.4 Remedial Action 41
4.2.5 Institutional Examination 43
4.3 Organisational Arrangement 45
4.4 Institutional Relationship 45
4.5 Function & Responsibilities 45
4.6 Ministry of Health 47
4.6.1 Unit Of Drinking Water Quality Surveillance (DWQS) 47
4.6.2 State Medical & Health Services Department (SMHSD) 48
4.6.3 District Health Office (DHO) 48
4.7 Formulation of Guidelines & Manuals 49
4.8 Implementation 50
4.9 Man-Power & Training Requirements 50
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10. 4.10 Equipments & Material 52
CHAPTERS:
PROBLEMS FACED BY WSD REGARDING WATER TREATMENT PLANT
5.1 Introduction 57
5.2 Choice Of Source 59
5.3 Choice Of Treatment Process 60
5.4 Existing Water Treatment 63
5.4.1 Example In Penang 66
5.4.2 Example In Johor 68
5.5 Plant Personnel 68
CHAPTER 6:
RECOMMENDATION & CONCLUSION 71
BIBLIOGRAPHY & REFERENCES 74
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IX

11. List of Figures
Figure 1: Standard Conventional Treatment System
Figure 1.4.2: Pot chlorinators for disinfecting wells
Figure 1.4.3 Example of a distribution network
Figure 2: Experiment fixed bed adsorber system
Figure 3: Ozonation pilot plant
Figure 4: Organic breakthrough curves - GAC adsorption
Figure 4.2.1 Sampling apparatus
Figure 4.4: Inter and Intra-agency organisation chart
Figure 5: Langmuir adsorption isothem test plots
Figure 5.3: Flow diagram of a conventional rapid filtration plant
Figure 6: Turbidity removal and headloss profile
Figure 7: Preozonation of raw water
Figure 8: Intermediate ozonation of settled water
Figure 9: Schematic illustration of five basic methods of ground water
extraction.
Figure 10: Pot chlorinators for disinfecting wells. Two alternative designs.
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12. List of Tables
Table 1: Drinking water quality
Table 2: Drinking water treatment system in Malaysia
Table 3: Treatment efficiency of a conventional system
Table 4: Results of treated water quality monitoring
Table 4.2.2: Sanitary survey of water supply sources
Table 4.5: Functions and responsibilities of the various agencies
Table 4.9: Categories of staff involved in DWQMP
Table 4.10: Equipment and reagents required by the various agencies
Table 5: List of treatment plants undergoing upgrading
Table 5.2 Quantity of raw water sources
Table 5.5: Rough estimate guidelines for water treatment plants
Table 6: Sungai Linggi raw water quality
Table 7: Removal of organics by PAC adsorption process
Table 8: Removal of turbidity and micropollutants by different filters
Table 9: Removal of micropollutants by ozonation
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XI

13. ABBREVIATION
ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers
BOD Biochemical Oxygen Demand
COD Chemical Oxygen Demand
DHO District Health Office
DOC Department of Chemistry
DOE Department of Environment
DWSD Water Supply Department
EEC European Economic Community
FDOC Federal Department of Chemistry
FDOE Federal Department of Environment
FWSD Federal Water Supply Department
GAC Granular Activated Carbon
ICWE International Conference on Water and the Environment
IRC International Reference Centre
MLD Million Litres per Day
MOH Ministry of Health
MR Malaysian Ringgit, Local Currency
NDWQSP National Drinking Water Quality Surveillance Programme
NGDWQ National Guidelines on Drinking Water Quality
PAC Powdered Activated Carbon
PEP AS Promotion for Environmental Planning and Applied Studies
PO Private Operator
PUB Public Utilities Board
PWD Public Works Department
RDOC Regional Department of Chemistry
RDOE Regional Department of Environment
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14. RESP Rural Environmental Sanitation Programme
RGF Rapid Gravity Filter
SLWTP Sungai Linggi Water Treatment Plant
SMHSD State Medical and Health Services Department
SWSD State Water Supply Department
SUNGAI River in Malay Language
THM Trihalomethane
TDS Total Dissolved Solids
UDWQS Unit of Drinking Water Quality Surveillance
USEPA United States Environmental Protection Agency
WB Water Board
WHO World Health Organisation
WSD Water Supply Department
WTP Water Treatment Plant
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15. Synopsis
The discertation is divided into six chapters and each chapter are divided into
sub-headings. The first chapter is the introduction to the title of discertation
regarding water in developing countries. This chapter also gives the background to
the case study - Malaysia.
The second chapter is the various types of existing water treatment methods
that are available in the world. This chapter also looks at the treatment options in
future for Malaysia by looking at two case studies especially on the experimental
method of using ozonation as well as activated carbon at a treatment plant in
Malaysia.
The third chapter discusses the role of government agencies involved with the
water industry. The various agencies or department's roles are explained so as to be
able to see the role each department can present to the water industry. An example
emphasising the roles of these departments in the need for proper inter-related and
co-ordination are given.
The fourth chapter is on the surveillance of potable water. The key
programme elements of surveillance were explained in detail. The work of the
drinking water quality surveillance unit in the Ministry of Health outlined.
The fifth chapter is on the problems faced by the water supply department
regarding water treatment plant in Malaysia. It explained the sort of problems faced
and illustrated by examples of two states in peninsular Malaysia. The cost of water
treatment plants in Malaysia were also given.
The sixth chapter is the conclusion and recommendation for the discertation.
The conclusion indicates the need to undertake more research in order to get the
most appropriate system for developing countries with reference to Malaysia.
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16. CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND
Water is one of the most precious elements of mankind heritage : Natural water
supplies, such as spring and rivers have played a key role in the establishment of cities.
History is rich with examples of the ingenuity of successive civilisation in managing
water resources : Egypt is a gift of the Nile; the Tigris and Euphrates created the great
civilisation of Mesopotamia , and the Romans constructed the longest aqueduct to
supply water to Carthage.
When cities are small (250 km^), they did not need complex infrastructure for
their drinking water supplies, and human activities at that time did little damage to the
water quality. For three decades and particularly during the last decade, cities have
undergone an incredible transformation into urban areas. The current area of cities are
over 6000 km^ ( ICWE,1992) and in developing countries, migration to the cities and
population growth have created metropolises which are surrounded by belts where
health condition are very poor.
Urban water supplies are experiencing a decline in quality. Rivers and streams
which supply cities also receive urban wastewater and industrial effluents , which
means that they cannot be used directly as a water supply. Toxic chemicals from
industry, pesticides , nitrates and phosphates from agriculture are all contributing to
the contamination of the freshwater resource.
Water is indispensable to life, and as such has a political significance, for
springs, rivers, etc., gives rise to sites for settlements. It is essential that the supply of
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17. CHAPTER 1
water for human consumption should be free from unpleasant or harmful impurity.
Most water legislation or acts were introduced after a big disaster happen like the
outbreaks of cholera in London in 1848 cause the Metropolitan Water Act of 1852.
In 1980 the " EC Directive relating to the quality of water intended for human
consumption " (80/778/EEC) was issued and this EEC legislation sought to control
and define the quality of water consumed. This EC directive defines water quality with
62 parameters specifying the properties of water fit for consumption.
These parameters are split into six main groups :
1. Organoleptic parameter such as colour or turbidity.
2. Physico - chemical parameter such as pH or aluminium concentration.
3. Parameters concerning substances undesirable in excessive amounts such as
the concentration of nitrates or phenols.
4. Parameters concerning toxic substances such as lead or mercury.
5. Microbiological parameter which covers the levels of indicator bacteria
permitted in the water.
6. Minimum standard for softened water.
The term "water quality" is a very widely used expression which has an
extremely broad spectrum of meanings. It is also dynamic and changes with time
because demand by consumers also changes with time. It is also essentially important
to meet promulgation of higher water quality standard as the quality of life improves.
The United Nation Organisation designated the period 1981-90 as the
International Drinking Water Supply and Adequate Sanitation Decade with the aim of
providing safe drinking water and adequate sanitation for all by 1990. Such an aim was
laudable but unrealistic hence the United Nation in 1992 launched the second Decade
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18. CHAPTER 1
called SAFE WATER 2000 which has more pragmatic objectives and which involves
setting achievable targets (Tebutt,1992).
WATER QUALITY CRITERIA
Drinking water is required to be ;
1. organoleptically acceptable ie good taste, no smell, no colour, no turbidity and
pleasant low temperature.
2. microbiologically safe ie no contents of pathogenic bacteria, virus, fungi, protozoa
and helminth eggs.
3.chemically hygienic ie no or low contents of toxic metals, organics and inorganic and
appropriate contents of iodide, fluoride and hardness ions.
4. technically acceptable ie low contents of non pathogenic bacteria and bacterial
nutrients and neutral contents of calcium carbonate.
5. radiologically safe ie low contents of radioactivity.
Nowadays, water quality can be measured by arrays of equipment with
accuracy never achieved before,
1.2 CASE STUDY - MALAYSIA
Malaysia, a country in south east Asia, got its independence from Britain in
1957. Malaysia is made up of 13 states and one federal territory with the capital Kuala
Lumpur. Malaysia is made up of east and west where west Malaysia is a peninsular
bordering with Thailand in the north and Singapore in the south while East Malaysia is
on the island of Borneo which borders Brunei and Indonesia.
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19. CHAPTER I
The climate is Equatorial with seasonal monsoon between the months of
November to January and affecting the northern states of peninsular Malaysia . The
population of Malaysia is about 18 million and there are a few cities with a population
of 1 million, Existingly, there is a total of about 430 water treatment plants being
operated by various water supply authorities in Malaysia. Of these 80% are
conventional in treatment capability and 20% are sub conventional, ie possessing only
part of a complete conventional treatment processes and capabiIity(Johari,1992). The
source for all the water treatment plants are rivers and the problems from the rivers
such as flooding and contamination elevated the problems in the water treatment
plants.
Most of the water treatment plants are monitored 24 hours a day by technical
teams headed by a technician and not by an engineer so some emergency decisions are
taken by the technician.This resulted in some decisions done not following the
Malaysian standards or the WHO guidelines. In the large water treatment plant where
the work are computerised then engineers are stationed there to make the necessary
decisions.
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20. CHAPTER 1
1.3 WATER TREATMENT - URBAN
The urban population are where all the large towns and cities are located and as
mentioned earlier most of the water treatment plants are using the rapid gravity
filtration system. The whole process of water treatment is Aeration, coagulation and
flocculation, sedimentation, filtration and disinfection, which is explained briefly below.
Most of the urban water source in Malaysia is from surface water taken from
streams and rivers. Surface water originates from ground water outflows and partly
from rainwater that had flowed over the ground to the receiving bodies of surface
water. The problem with rain in industrial areas are acid rain which also fall into
surface waters and river intake to water treatment plants. The ground water outflows
will bring dissolved solids into the surface water, the surface run-off is the main
contributor of turbidity and organic matter as well as pathogenic organisms.
In rivers, the dissolved mineral particles remain uncharged but the organic
impurities are degraded through chemical and microbial processes. Most rivers in
Malaysia do not require any treatment three decades ago and are suitable for drinking
but now are polluted because of effluents discharge from industries and plantations
(Johari,1992). The Consumer Association of Penang, a third world NGO had
highlighted serious problem in peninsular Malaysia. The three principal sources of
polluting rivers are the organic wastes from sewage, and discharges from oil-palm and
rubber factories.
The range and complexity of water pollution problems caused by discharged of
non agro-based industrial effluents has increased especially in industrial centres. The
main industrial sources of pollution come from electroplating industries, tanneries,
textile mills, food processing industries, distilleries, chloro-alkali plants, sulphuric acid
plants and electronic factories. Many of these industries discharge wastes containing
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21. CHAPTER I
different compounds, including heavy metals into public water course without prior
treatment. Significant levels of toxic heavy metals have been found in.some river basin
like the Juru River Basin. Measurement in coastal waters and estuarine waters in
various location showed very high concentration of coliform
bacteria(Mahesuaran, 1982).
1.3.1 SCREENING
The first stage in preliminary treatment usually involves a simple screening or
straining operation to remove large solids. A coarse screen with openings of about
75mm is used to prevent large objects reaching the intake. The main screen are usually
provided in the form of a mesh with openings of 5-20mm. The screenings removed
from water are normally returned to the source downstream of the abstraction point.
Micro straining is used for removal of algae and similar-size particles (Boucher, 1961).
1.3.2 AERATION
The water from the river is pumped up to a reservoir or plain sedimentation
tank and from there the water is aerated for the purpose of:
a) increasing the oxygen content
b) reducing the carbon dioxide content
c) removing hydrogen sulphide, methane and various volatile organic
compounds responsible for taste and odour(Cox, 1964).
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22. CHAPTER 1
The purpose of (a) and (c) above are useful in production of good drinking
water. Aeration is widely used for the treatment of ground water having too high an
iron and manganese content (Awwa,1975).
1.3.3 COAGULATION AND FLOCCULATION
The development of rapid gravity sand filter (RGF) has emphasised the need to
eliminate, as much as possible, the particles of suspended matter through processes
known as coagulation and flocculation. Coagulation is the step to treat raw water with
chemicals usually aluminium sulphate (alum) to coagulate the particles but sometimes
ferric sulphate, ferrous sulphate and sodium aluminate are also added.
Flocculation is the growth of coagulated particles to unite the colloidal and
larger particles of suspended matter leading to an easier settlement and more effective
filtration to follow.
1.3.4 SEDIMENTATION
There are two sedimentation processes undertaken. One is after the intake from
the river (plain sedimentation) where the settling of suspended matter without the aid
of chemical coagulation. Sometimes prechlorination is recommended at low dosage to
avoid THM. The other one is after coagulation/ flocculation and for better results and
improved utilisation of settling basins by using the chemical coagulant and followed by
the filtration process. The alum sludge accumulated at the bottom .of the basin are
needed to be removed from time to time. The problem is the sludge is not highly
biodegradable and sometimes are dumped back into the river.
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23. CHAPTER 1
1.3.5 FILTRATION
The most commonly used filtration type is the rapid gravity sand filters (RGF)
and in some parts of the country slow sand filters (SSF) are still being used. The basic
principal of filtration is to filter the tiny floating floes which escape the opportunity to
settle at the basin. The mechanism by which the tiny particles are removed by simple
filtration are summarised by (Ives et al, 1967 and 1969).
The best single process that can effect an improvement in the physical,
chemical and bacteriological quality of normal surface water is the slow sand
filter(Huisman ,1974). The advantages of slow sand filter in developing countries are :
1) The cost of construction is low especially where manual labour is used.
2) Simplicity of design and operation means that filters can be built and used
with limited technical supervision. No special pipework, equipment or
instrument is needed.
3) The labour required for maintenance can be unskilled as the major job as
cleaning the beds,can be done by hand.
4) Imports of materials and equipment can be negligible and no chemicals are
required.
5) Power is not required if a fall is available on site, as there are no moving
parts or requirements for compressed air or high pressure water.
6) Variation in raw water quality and temperature can be accommodated
provided turbidity does not become excessive; and overloading for short
periods does no harm.
7) Water is saved because of no backwashing.
8) Sludge is less troublesome and quantity is small and easily dewatered.
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24. CHAPTER 1
1.3.6 DISINFECTION
Disinfection by chlorination is the process of killing disease causing bacteria in
water through the germicidal effect of chlorine. The killing effect through oxidising by
chlorine on the bacteria is not immediate. To be effective the minimum duration for the
contact time between chlorine and bacteria should be about 20 minutes. Chlorine
residual is the remained chlorine constituent after the application of chlorine in the
treatment process.
Chlorine residual are of two kinds, namely combined chlorine residual and free
chlorine residual. Free chlorine residual has better disinfection effect than combined
chlorine residual, but for it to be available throughout the pipe network then heavy
dosage of chlorination is necessary.
The World Health Organisation has recommended that there should be about
0.1 to 0.2 ppm of free chlorine residual throughout the water distribution network
(Wong,1987).
1.4 RURAL WATER TREATMENT
The water treatment plant in the rural or villages are usually the sub
conventional system (possessing only part of a complete conventional treatment
processes and capability) or the disinfection of wells ie ground water. The villages
which are far from the public water distribution system will have to rely on ground
water from wells, rainwater and springs
1.4.1 RAINWATER
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