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Mobile Radio Propagation
1.
Copyright © 2003,
Dr. Dharma P. Agrawal and Dr. Qing-An Zeng. All rights reserved. 1 Chapter 3 Mobile Radio Propagation
2.
Copyright © 2003,
Dr. Dharma P. Agrawal and Dr. Qing-An Zeng. All rights reserved. 2 Outline Speed, Wavelength, Frequency Types of Waves Radio Frequency Bands Propagation Mechanisms Radio Propagation Effects Free-Space Propagation Land Propagation Path Loss Fading: Slow Fading / Fast Fading Delay Spread Doppler Shift Co-Channel Interference The Near-Far Problem Digital Wireless Communication System Analog and Digital Signals Modulation Techniques
3.
Copyright © 2003,
Dr. Dharma P. Agrawal and Dr. Qing-An Zeng. All rights reserved. 3 Speed, Wavelength, Frequency System Frequency Wavelength AC current 60 Hz 5,000 km FM radio 100 MHz 3 m Cellular 800 MHz 37.5 cm Ka band satellite 20 GHz 15 mm Ultraviolet light 1015 Hz 10-7 m Light speed = Wavelength x Frequency = 3 x 108 m/s = 300,000 km/s
4.
Copyright © 2003,
Dr. Dharma P. Agrawal and Dr. Qing-An Zeng. All rights reserved. 4 Types of Waves Transmitter Receiver Earth Sky wave Space wave Ground wave Troposphere (0 - 12 km) Stratosphere (12 - 50 km) Mesosphere (50 - 80 km) Ionosphere (80 - 720 km)
5.
Copyright © 2003,
Dr. Dharma P. Agrawal and Dr. Qing-An Zeng. All rights reserved. 5 Radio Frequency Bands Classification Band Initials Frequency Range Characteristics Extremely low ELF < 300 Hz Ground waveInfra low ILF 300 Hz - 3 kHz Very low VLF 3 kHz - 30 kHz Low LF 30 kHz - 300 kHz Medium MF 300 kHz - 3 MHz Ground/Sky wave High HF 3 MHz - 30 MHz Sky wave Very high VHF 30 MHz - 300 MHz Space wave Ultra high UHF 300 MHz - 3 GHz Super high SHF 3 GHz - 30 GHz Extremely high EHF 30 GHz - 300 GHz Tremendously high THF 300 GHz - 3000 GHz
6.
Copyright © 2003,
Dr. Dharma P. Agrawal and Dr. Qing-An Zeng. All rights reserved. 6 Propagation Mechanisms Reflection Propagation wave impinges on an object which is large as compared to wavelength - e.g., the surface of the Earth, buildings, walls, etc. Diffraction Radio path between transmitter and receiver obstructed by surface with sharp irregular edges Waves bend around the obstacle, even when LOS (line of sight) does not exist Scattering Objects smaller than the wavelength of the propagation wave - e.g. foliage, street signs, lamp posts
7.
Copyright © 2003,
Dr. Dharma P. Agrawal and Dr. Qing-An Zeng. All rights reserved. 7 Radio Propagation Effects Transmitter d Receiver hb hm Diffracted Signal Reflected Signal Direct Signal Building
8.
Copyright © 2003,
Dr. Dharma P. Agrawal and Dr. Qing-An Zeng. All rights reserved. 8 Free-space Propagation The received signal power at distance d: where Pt is transmitting power, Ae is effective area, and Gt is the transmitting antenna gain. Assuming that the radiated power is uniformly distributed over the surface of the sphere. Transmitter Distance d Receiver hb hm 2 r 4 P d PGA tte π =
9.
Copyright © 2003,
Dr. Dharma P. Agrawal and Dr. Qing-An Zeng. All rights reserved. 9 Antenna Gain For a circular reflector antenna Gain G = η ( π D / λ )2 η = net efficiency (depends on the electric field distribution over the antenna aperture, losses, ohmic heating , typically 0.55) D = diameter thus, G = η (π D f /c )2 , c = λ f (c is speed of light) Example: Antenna with diameter = 2 m, frequency = 6 GHz, wavelength = 0.05 m G = 39.4 dB Frequency = 14 GHz, same diameter, wavelength = 0.021 m G = 46.9 dB * Higher the frequency, higher the gain for the same size antenna
10.
Copyright © 2003,
Dr. Dharma P. Agrawal and Dr. Qing-An Zeng. All rights reserved. 10 Land Propagation The received signal power: where Gr is the receiver antenna gain, L is the propagation loss in the channel, i.e., L = LP LS LF L PGG P trt r = Fast fading Slow fading Path loss
11.
Copyright © 2003,
Dr. Dharma P. Agrawal and Dr. Qing-An Zeng. All rights reserved. 11 Path Loss (Free-space) Definition of path loss LP : Path Loss in Free-space: where fc is the carrier frequency. This shows greater the fc , more is the loss. , r t P P P L = ),(log20)(log2045.32)( 1010 kmdMHzfdBL cPF ++=
12.
Copyright © 2003,
Dr. Dharma P. Agrawal and Dr. Qing-An Zeng. All rights reserved. 12 Path Loss (Land Propagation) Simplest Formula: Lp = A d-α where A and α: propagation constants d : distance between transmitter and receiver α : value of 3 ~ 4 in typical urban area
13.
Copyright © 2003,
Dr. Dharma P. Agrawal and Dr. Qing-An Zeng. All rights reserved. 13 Example of Path Loss (Free-space) Path Loss in Free-space 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 Distance d (km) PathLossLf(dB) fc=150MHz fc=200MHz fc=400MHz fc=800MHz fc=1000MHz fc=1500MHz
14.
Copyright © 2003,
Dr. Dharma P. Agrawal and Dr. Qing-An Zeng. All rights reserved. 14 Path Loss (Urban, Suburban and Open areas) Urban area: where Suburban area: Open area: [ ] [ ] )(log)(log55.69.44 )()(log82.13)(log16.2655.69)( 1010 1010 kmdmh mhmhMHzfdBL b mbcPU −+ −−+= α [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] ≥− ≤− −−− = citymediumsmallfor MHzfformh MHzfformh cityelforMHzfmhMHzf mh cm cm cmc m &, 400,97.4)(75.11log2.3 200,1.1)(54.1log29.8 arg,8.0)(log56.1)(7.0)(log1.1 )( 2 10 2 10 1010 α 4.5 28 )( log2)()( 2 10 − −= MHzf dBLdBL c PUPS [ ] 94.40)(log33.18)(log78.4)()( 10 2 10 −+−= MHzfMHzfdBLdBL ccPUPO
15.
Copyright © 2003,
Dr. Dharma P. Agrawal and Dr. Qing-An Zeng. All rights reserved. 15 Path Loss Path loss in decreasing order: Urban area (large city) Urban area (medium and small city) Suburban area Open area
16.
Copyright © 2003,
Dr. Dharma P. Agrawal and Dr. Qing-An Zeng. All rights reserved. 16 Example of Path Loss (Urban Area: Large City) Path Loss in Urban Area in Large City 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 0 10 20 30 Distance d (km) PathLossLpu(dB) fc=200MHz fc=400MHz fc=800MHz fc=1000MHz fc=1500MHz fc=150MHz
17.
Copyright © 2003,
Dr. Dharma P. Agrawal and Dr. Qing-An Zeng. All rights reserved. 17 Example of Path Loss (Urban Area: Medium and Small Cities) Path Loss in Urban Area for Small & Medium Cities 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 0 10 20 30 Distance d (km) PathLossLpu(dB) fc=150MHz fc=200MHz fc=400MHz fc=800MHz fc=1000MHz fc=1500MHz
18.
Copyright © 2003,
Dr. Dharma P. Agrawal and Dr. Qing-An Zeng. All rights reserved. 18 Example of Path Loss (Suburban Area) Path Loss in Suburban Area 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 Distance d (km) PathLossLps(dB) fc=150MHz fc=200MHz fc=400MHz fc=800MHz fc=1000MHz fc=1500MHz
19.
Copyright © 2003,
Dr. Dharma P. Agrawal and Dr. Qing-An Zeng. All rights reserved. 19 Example of Path Loss (Open Area) Path Loss in Open Area 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 Distance d (km) PathLossLpo(dB) fc=150MHz fc=200MHz fc=400MHz fc=800MHz fc=1000MHz fc=1500MHz
20.
Copyright © 2003,
Dr. Dharma P. Agrawal and Dr. Qing-An Zeng. All rights reserved. 20 Fading Signal Strength (dB) Distance Path Loss Slow Fading (Long-term fading) Fast Fading (Short-term fading)
21.
Copyright © 2003,
Dr. Dharma P. Agrawal and Dr. Qing-An Zeng. All rights reserved. 21 Slow Fading The long-term variation in the mean level is known as slow fading (shadowing or log-normal fading). This fading caused by shadowing. Log-normal distribution: - The pdf of the received signal level is given in decibels by where M is the true received signal level m in decibels, i.e., 10log10m, M is the area average signal level, i.e., the mean of M, σ is the standard deviation in decibels ( ) ( ) , 2 1 2 2 2σ σπ MM eMp − − =
22.
Copyright © 2003,
Dr. Dharma P. Agrawal and Dr. Qing-An Zeng. All rights reserved. 22 Log-normal Distribution M M 2σ p(M) The pdf of the received signal level
23.
Copyright © 2003,
Dr. Dharma P. Agrawal and Dr. Qing-An Zeng. All rights reserved. 23 Fast Fading The signal from the transmitter may be reflected from objects such as hills, buildings, or vehicles. When MS far from BS, the envelope distribution of received signal is Rayleigh distribution. The pdf is where σ is the standard deviation. Middle value rm of envelope signal within sample range to be satisfied by We have rm = 1.777 ( ) 0, 2 2 2 2 >= − re r rp r σ σ .5.0)( =≤ mrrP
24.
Copyright © 2003,
Dr. Dharma P. Agrawal and Dr. Qing-An Zeng. All rights reserved. 24 Rayleigh Distribution The pdf of the envelope variation r 2 4 6 8 10 P(r) 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 σ=1 σ=2 σ=3
25.
Copyright © 2003,
Dr. Dharma P. Agrawal and Dr. Qing-An Zeng. All rights reserved. 25 Fast Fading (Continued) When MS far from BS, the envelope distribution of received signal is Rician distribution. The pdf is where σ is the standard deviation, I0(x) is the zero-order Bessel function of the first kind, α is the amplitude of the direct signal ( ) 0,0 2 2 2 22 ≥ = + − r r Ie r rp r σ α σ σ α
26.
Copyright © 2003,
Dr. Dharma P. Agrawal and Dr. Qing-An Zeng. All rights reserved. 26 Rician Distribution r Pdfp(r) r 86420 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 α = 2 α = 1 α= 0 (Rayleigh) σ = 1 α = 3 The pdf of the envelope variation
27.
Copyright © 2003,
Dr. Dharma P. Agrawal and Dr. Qing-An Zeng. All rights reserved. 27 Characteristics of Instantaneous Amplitude Level Crossing Rate: Average number of times per second that the signal envelope crosses the level in positive going direction. Fading Rate: Number of times signal envelope crosses middle value in positive going direction per unit time. Depth of Fading: Ratio of mean square value and minimum value of fading signal. Fading Duration: Time for which signal is below given threshold.
28.
Copyright © 2003,
Dr. Dharma P. Agrawal and Dr. Qing-An Zeng. All rights reserved. 28 Doppler Shift Doppler Effect: When a wave source and a receiver are moving towards each other, the frequency of the received signal will not be the same as the source. When they are moving toward each other, the frequency of the received signal is higher than the source. When they are opposing each other, the frequency decreases. Thus, the frequency of the received signal is where fC is the frequency of source carrier, fD is the Doppler frequency. Doppler Shift in frequency: where v is the moving speed, λ is the wavelength of carrier. θ λ cos v fD = DCR fff −= MS Signal Moving speed v
29.
Copyright © 2003,
Dr. Dharma P. Agrawal and Dr. Qing-An Zeng. All rights reserved. 29 Delay Spread When a signal propagates from a transmitter to a receiver, signal suffers one or more reflections. This forces signal to follow different paths. Each path has different path length, so the time of arrival for each path is different. This effect which spreads out the signal is called “Delay Spread”.
30.
Copyright © 2003,
Dr. Dharma P. Agrawal and Dr. Qing-An Zeng. All rights reserved. 30 Moving Speed Effect Time V1 V2 V3 V4 Signalstrength
31.
Copyright © 2003,
Dr. Dharma P. Agrawal and Dr. Qing-An Zeng. All rights reserved. 31 Delay Spread Delay SignalStrength The signals from close by reflectors The signals from intermediate reflectors The signals from far away reflectors
32.
Copyright © 2003,
Dr. Dharma P. Agrawal and Dr. Qing-An Zeng. All rights reserved. 32 Intersymbol Interference (ISI) Caused by time delayed multipath signals Has impact on burst error rate of channel Second multipath is delayed and is received during next symbol For low bit-error-rate (BER) R (digital transmission rate) limited by delay spread τd. d R τ2 1 <
33.
Copyright © 2003,
Dr. Dharma P. Agrawal and Dr. Qing-An Zeng. All rights reserved. 33 Intersymbol Interference (ISI) Time Time Time Transmission signal Received signal (short delay) Received signal (long delay) 1 0 1 Propagation time Delayed signals
34.
Copyright © 2003,
Dr. Dharma P. Agrawal and Dr. Qing-An Zeng. All rights reserved. 34 Coherence Bandwidth Coherence bandwidth Bc: Represents correlation between 2 fading signal envelopes at frequencies f1 and f2. Is a function of delay spread. Two frequencies that are larger than coherence bandwidth fade independently. Concept useful in diversity reception Multiple copies of same message are sent using different frequencies.
35.
Copyright © 2003,
Dr. Dharma P. Agrawal and Dr. Qing-An Zeng. All rights reserved. 35 Cochannel Interference Cells having the same frequency interfere with each other. rd is the desired signal ru is the interfering undesired signal β is the protection ratio for which rd ≤ βru (so that the signals interfere the least) If P(rd ≤ βru ) is the probability that rd ≤ βru , Cochannel probability Pco = P(rd ≤ βru )