1. Space as a strategic vision for Turkey and its people
Tamer O¨ zalp*
The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TU¨ B_ITAK), Atatu¨rk Bulvarı, No: 221, Kavaklıdere, 06100 Ankara, Turkey
Available online 28 October 2009
Abstract
Turkey entered the 21st century making increasing efforts towards rapid economic and technological development, social change and renewal
of its infrastructure. Naturally this process places a heavy load on the current system and it affects every section of society at various rates.
Turkey must get involved in new areas in order to continue its development progress by minimizing such effects. One of these new areas is space,
which has become an important tool for protecting and improving civilization and is a strategic expression of Turkey’s future. This article
outlines Turkey’s potential in space activities, considers the current situation of space activities in the country and shows their evolution over 20
years with a view to identifying promising developments. Turkey is actively determining the necessary policies to allow future generations to
compete in the international arena in the long term. But Turkey must also clarify what sort of space organization model it wants to pursue.
Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
‘‘Space is the meaning of civilization and important tool to
protect and improve it.’’
In recent years, there has been an increasing acceleration in
space studies around the world, giving rise to worldwide
competition by 2000. Turkey started the 21st century making
increasing efforts towards rapid economic development, social
change and renewal. Naturally this process places a heavy load
on the current system and it affects each and every section of
society at various rates. Turkey must become involved in new
investment areas in order to continue its sustained progress by
minimizing such effects. One of these new areas is space.
Today space has become a new and rich field, as well as
a preferential development sector, which is rapidly contrib-
uting to countries’ financial welfare and progress. Space
technologies play a key role in accelerating countries’ devel-
opment processes and in increasing societies’ quality of life
and security. For some time Turkey lagged behind in these
developments, despite having great potential and enough
capacity to compete at a world level. Now, however, space has
been recognized as a strategic area for Turkey.
This article outlines Turkey’s potential in space activities. It
provides an overall perspective as well as information on
specific areas. It considers the current situation of space
activities in Turkey (R&D and industrial activity) and shows
their evolution over 20 years with a view to identifying
promising developments. This broad assessment is
complemented by focusing on the National Space Research
Program and its performance, which confirms the potential
value of space in Turkey for society at large. Turkey broadly
supports the development of space policies across Europe, and
the article also describes the various international space-
related programs and organizations with which Turkey is
involved e in particular the European Commission and the
European Space Agency e and examines Turkey’s space-
based assets and defense research potential, which play
a strategic role in the country to minimize duplication and
dependency on external sources. Long-term Turkish progress
in space depends on establishing a national space infrastruc-
ture: despite having a good general infrastructure, realizing
Turkey’s potential and ability in space has been delayed
because of the lack of governance mechanisms needed to
activate this potential. Decision-making on the governance of
space activities is still evolving. The data and information on
* Tel.: þ90 312 4685300x1260; fax: þ90 312 427 74 83.
E-mail address: tamer.ozalp@tubitak.gov.tr
0265-9646/$ - see front matter Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.spacepol.2009.09.005
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
Space Policy 25 (2009) 224e235
www.elsevier.com/locate/spacepol

2. which the article is based have mainly been gathered from the
assessments and results of meetings of the Supreme Council
for Science and Technology (SCST, see below).
By August 2009 many concrete advances had been made on
the basis of the National Space Research Program and coop-
eration among Turkish institutions and enterprises had been
developed. Furthermore, continuous improvement can be
observed in Turkey’s prestige, efficiency and international
visibility in the field of space research.
2. Turkey in general
Turkey is made up of micro-continents and has a unique
geostrategic location in an area where Asia, Europe, Africa and
Arabia meet. Its size e with a vibrant young population e marks
it as an emerging dynamic economy. Turkey is playing a pivotal
role in developing economic cooperation with countries that
surround it, providing a passageway (because of its position as
an energy and transport corridor linking East and West) for the
old Asian Turkish cultures to reach Europe and at the same time
a window of the west opening to the east and the north opening
to the south. Over the past two decades the Republic of Turkey
has undergone a profound economic transformation. Combined
with an outward-oriented trade policy, the Turkish economy has
been pursuing progressive growth in most sectors, making it one
of the fastest-growing emerging power markets in the world.
3. Background to space activities
Space activities in Turkey were first placed on the gov-
ernment’s agenda in the 1990sand outlined inthe document of the
SCST, ‘‘Turkish Science and Technology Policy 1993e2003’’
[1], adopted on 3 February 1993:
taking into consideration the progress of Science and
Technology in the world and the potential available in
Turkey to reach e in a determined period e the goals set,
the issues which affect almost all sectors of the economy
and all fields of life are:
Informatics (a combination of computer, micro-electronic,
telecommunication technologies);
Advanced technology materials;
Biotechnology;
Nuclear technology;
Space technology.
The need to give special priority to studies on these issues
was highlighted. At the same meeting, SCST made TU¨ B_ITAK
the responsible body for determining the policy to be followed
in the issue of space technology. Coordination studies of
space-related activities in Turkey began with the State Plan-
ning Agency’s (DPT) official statement of 22 June 1990, along
with the establishment of the Space Science and Technologies
Committee (UB_ITEK) under the auspices of TU¨ B_ITAK [2,35].
During this time coordination studies continued, producing
common projects among the country’s institutions, especially
targeting efforts in fields like remote sensing, space science,
astronomy and astrophysics. During 1990e1995 UBITEK per-
formed studies in space activities. An advisory meeting was held
on 15 October 1993, to seek the opinions of related institutions,
and a study was initiated in the national policy making process.
Following the identification of space (along with defense and
aeronautics) as one of seven preferential areas for Turkey to
improve itself in science and technology, a number of plans and
studies were prepared. These included a draft bill prepared by
TU¨ B_ITAK for the establishment of a National Aeronautics and
Space Studies Council [3]. The bill was submitted to the Prime
Ministry through a statement dated 28 April 1998 of the Ministry
of State to which TU¨ B_ITAK is responsible. During the SCST
meeting held on 20 December 1999, TU¨ B_ITAK was nominated
to initiate studies gathering all relevant parties in order to
prepare a national policy in the field of space science and
technologies [4]. In this context, a draft document entitled ‘‘The
general framework for Turkey’s national space policy’’ was
submitted to the views of related institutions.
In the 2000s, a new era of Turkish space activities occurred
as a result of TU¨ B_ITAK’s endeavors. TU¨ B_ITAK and other
Turkish institutions (Ministry of Transportation, Ministry of
National Defense and Turkish Air Force) increased their
activities in the space field. In 2001 the National Security
Council approved a decision on ‘‘Establishing a Turkish Space
Agency’’ [5]. Pursuant to the Council of Ministers’ Decision,
and in order for all space activities to be directed by a single
center, a draft bill concerning establishment of a Turkish Space
Agency was prepared; studies are still being carried out.
Meanwhile, the infrastructure investments of public institutions
continued. At the same time, on behalf of the Government of
Turkey, TU¨ B_ITAK applied to ESA for a cooperation agreement.
Decisions were made to increase RD spending until 2010 and
to allocate additional public resources from the 2005 budget to
RD [6]. One of the preferential areas for such spending is space
research and a National Space Research Program was prepared on
the basis of this decision, to be coordinated by TU¨ B_ITAK. In 2004
TU¨ B_ITAK signed an Agreement concerning cooperation in the
exploration and use of outer space for peaceful purposes with ESA
[7]. Ministry of Defense space RD projects predominated in this
period. At the same time industry, academia and private sector
institutions gave special importance to space studies.
In the space technology and applications area Turkey
jointed the Asia-Pacific Space Cooperation Organization
(APSCO) as a founder member in June 2006 [7]. In 2004
through the Vision 2023 Technology (TU¨ B_ITAK) and Basic
Sciences (Turkish Academy of SciencesdTU¨ BA) Foresight
Projects, space was underlined as a privileged area.
4. The Supreme Council for Science and Technology
(SCST) and the Scientific and Technological Research
Council of Turkey (TU¨ B_ITAK)
4.1. Science and technology and innovation policy,
strategies, goals and RTD
The Supreme Council for Science and Technology
(SCST) was founded on 4 October 1983 [8]. Its designated
225T. O¨ zalp / Space Policy 25 (2009) 224e235

3. tasks are: implementation of the Turkish science policy,
assisting the government in determining long-term ST
policies, identification of targets, elaboration of plans and
programs, assignment of public organs, establishment of
collaboration with private establishments, elaboration of
required laws and legislation, provision of human resources
development for research, implementation of measures for
establishment of research centers, determination of fields of
research and provision of coordination services. The SCST is
chaired by the Prime Minister and composed of all those
ministries and organizations with an interest in science and
technology.
A National Science, Technology and Innovation Strategy
for 2005e2010 was adopted by SCST on 10 March 2005 [6].
Its main objective is defined as enhancing the innovative
capabilities of the private sector, becoming competent in
science and technology and transforming such competence
into economic and social benefit. The strategy outlines the
vision and mission of the Turkish science and technology
system, and lists the main strategic goals and required action
areas for accomplishing said goals. As the main modality for
this strategy, a Turkish Research Area (TRA) was defined,
comprising all private and public entities that either perform,
fund or require RD activities. The scope of the new scientific
and technological vision of Turkey is aimed at creating
a Turkish Research Area (TARAL) and making the country
a leader in achieving the utilization of science and technology
by society, to increase and maintain a national level of well-
being. At the same time, efforts are underway to integrate
TARAL into the European Research Area (ERA).
Turkish RD expenditure was 0.76% of GDP in 2006,
whereas the EU average was 1.84%. It is aimed to raise this
rate to 2% and the number of full-time equivalent researchers
to 150 000 in 2013. Accordingly, while the amount of public
investments in RD was TL319 million in 2003, it was raised
to TL964 million in 2008, an increase of 302% [9].
Another issue as important as increasing resources
allocated is overcoming the shortage of researchers. Turkey’s
ratio of RD personnel to total labor force was 0.43% in 2006,
well below the EU-27 average of 1.33%. Programs and
projects were initiated to educate researchers inside and
outside the country to overcome this shortage [9]. A measure
for ‘‘improving researcher labor force raising programs and
developing incentive mechanism for encouraging research’’
under the responsibility of TU¨ B_ITAK was included in the
2009 Public Investment Program [12]. Turkey has great human
potential for research: as things stand Turkey’s demography
will still be an asset in 2023. One-third of its young population
is under the age of 22, a meaningful statistic within the context
of social mobility and particularly with the high social
mobility of the female population. This gives Turkey a strong
advantage in human resources.
TU¨ B_ITAK is the leading agency for the management, fund-
ing and conduct of research and technology development in
Turkey [8]. An autonomous institution, it was established in
1963 with a mission to advance science (basic and applied) and
technology, conduct research and support Turkish researchers.
TU¨ B_ITAK currently has the task of providing the preparatory
organization for Turkish space science and technology policies.
These policies are determined by the SCST, which reviews them
annually at cabinet level. At the end of 2004 the SCST delegated
TU¨ B_ITAK to prepare a ‘‘a national space research program of
Turkey’’. The first such program was launched in March 2005
for a 10-year period [6]. TU¨ B_ITAK will prepare a National
Innovation Strategy and Action Plan, in order to establish
a national innovation system which will increase both cooper-
ation between institutions in science and technology areas and
the effectiveness of the private sector.
5. National Space Research Programme
Nowadays, space is not just a tool for understanding the
Universe, it has become a fundamental sector where countries’
development policies are implemented and new frontiers are
opened for the future economic and social welfare of
humanity. The effectiveness of countries’ space activities is
usually related to their degree of human development and the
budget expenditure ratios they allocate to space. In addition to
its roles in fundamental sectors such as energy, water,
medicine, education, agriculture, security, etc., space has
related applications and is a preferential and fundamental
development sector that contributes to the welfare and
progress of countries.
For many years Turkey lagged behind in these develop-
ments, despite having a great potential and enough capacity to
compete at a world level. The world space market will be
worth about US$160 billion in 2010 [13,14,15,16,17]. This is
one and a half times Turkey’s export income and Turkey is out
of this market. Thus far, realizing Turkey’s potential in the
space field has been hampered by a lack of the mechanisms
needed to activate this potential. Turkey must invest in new
fields like space in order to continue to develop, enrich its
society and increase quality of life. The use of space tech-
nologies must become more widespread in order to strengthen
the country’s economy and develop the industry and services
that will produce an advanced civilization. When this reality
and Turkey’s current geostrategic condition are considered, it
is clear that Turkey must give priority to space research.
The SCST took a major decision on opening new areas and
reaching high development standards in Turkey at its meeting on
8 September 2004 [5] when, as mentioned above, it accepted the
need to raise the percentage of RD spending to 2% of GDP by
2013 [6] and succeeded in getting space research identified
under the custody of Prime Ministry as a privileged area. The
first National Space Research Program adopted on 10 March
2005 [6] was prepared entirely by Turkish space stakeholders
and by considering the country’s specific capability, capacity,
infrastructure and culture. This program demonstrates the
determination of the Republic of Turkey to pursue space and
signifies its investment in its people and future. The program
will be carried out over 10 years.
The main goal of the program is to establish a space RD
infrastructure and to create the necessary national mechanisms
to maintain it. The program’s other objectives are to:
226 T. O¨ zalp / Space Policy 25 (2009) 224e235

4. mobilize and strengthen Turkish space industry by
improving their capacity and capability;
encourage and support research and technological devel-
opment in space science, life sciences and Earth sciences;
share these studies with society, and spread space
applications across society;
develop new technologies and integrated systems, form
a knowledge infrastructure and use all these as decision
support mechanisms and decision generation processes;
form a ‘space culture’, develop education programmes,
encourage the participation especially of children and
young people, and make society aware of space;
generalize the use of space technologies and space-based
services in society and create opportunities for industry,
trade and service sectors.
TU¨ B_ITAK will coordinate the National Space Research
Programme together with other space stakeholders and will be
responsible for its implementation. The budget and priorities
of the programme over the next 10 years are shown in Table 1.
In the three years since the National Space Research
Programme was adopted around 350 RD projects have been
proposed by Turkish organizations, costing in the region of V125
million [7,10,11,18,25], and the interest of Turkish institutions in
space continues to increase. The Turkish military forces,
ministries, universities, public and private institutions have all
beendevelopingand offeringprojectstobesupported bythe State
Planning Organization of Turkey (DPT), TU¨ B_ITAK and other
institutions [21]. These projects are summarized below. They
basically aim to form a research-university-industry-public-
society chain to benefit the country’s development [37].
SCIENCE
Astrophysics research, X and Gamma Ray studies,
renewal of telescopes, establishment of radio astronomy
observatory, SolareEarth interactions and magnetic field
researches, early-warning systems, geological, geophysics
and geodesy research, climate change and global warming,
meteorological estimation models.
TECHNOLOGY
Developing an earth observation research and demonstra-
tion satellite (2.5 m pixel resolution), designing and
developing low-cost satellite types, developing space
launch systems, sensor design and development (Optic-
SAR), developing gyroscope technology, designing and
developing communication systems.
Table 1
The budget and the areas of the Turkish National Space Research Programme [6].
Programme 2005e2014 proposed
(TL millions)
SCIENCE Astrophysics 16
Astronomy 10
Near Space 1.5
Earth Science 44
Life Science, Microgravity 1.5
Total 73
TECHNOLOGY Space (System) Infrastructure
(Satellite, Ground Control, Launching)
809
Space Technology (Development) 102
SpaceTransportation-Advanced Aeronautics 30
Space Security 5
Total 946
APPLICATION Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems 10
Navigation and Global Positioning System 5
Meteorology 5
Satellite Communication 10
Total 30
HUMAN RESOURCES
AND KNOWLEDGE
Future Generation 40
Society and Culture 5
Total 45
INTERNATIONAL
COOPERATION
European Space Agency and European Union Relations 15
International Cooperation (NASA, Russia, China,
Ukraine, India, Japan, UN e.g.)
5
Regional Cooperation (Southeast Europe, Balkans,
Caucasus, Black Sea, Middle Asia, Mediterranean, Middle East)
10
Total 30
MONITORING AND
COORDINATION
Strengthening National Coordination and Cooperative work 1
1 eur ¼ 1.69 TL 1usd ¼ 1.28 TL(March 2005) General Total 1125
227T. O¨ zalp / Space Policy 25 (2009) 224e235

5. APPLICATIONS
Data harmonization and improving the country’s spatial
data standards, e-government applications, CBS-based
web presentations, tele-education, telemedicine, natural
hazard risks and mitigation, land cover change and spatial
planning, environmental risk management and protection
of biodiversity.
HUMAN RESOURCES
Education and training programs for the next generation
(5e22 years), forming a space culture in society.
INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION
Increasing and strengthening cooperation with ESA,
cooperation agreements with other states, participation in
global programs and international space programs and
initiating regional cooperation networks.
5.1. 2005e2008: INITIAL PROGRESS IN NON-
DEPENDENCE
5.1.1. Space technology and satellite development
In order to meet the satellite data needs of the Turkish
Armed Forces and other public institutions, an earth obser-
vation research and technology demonstration satellite (2.5 m
pixel resolution) project was initiated with the cooperation of
the TU¨ B_ITAK Space Technologies Research Institute
(TU¨ B_ITAK UZAY) and Turkish Aerospace Industries (TAI).
The project’s main client is the Ministry of National Defense.
The satellite is expected to be launched by 2012 [37].
A pico-satellite (_ITU¨ pSAT1) design project was initiated by
students at the Space Department of Istanbul Technical
University in 2006 [26,38,39]. Desktop and engineering
models of the satellite have been designed and developed. The
satellite launched in 2009.
5.1.2. National coordination, people and information
As part of the National Space Research Program,
TU¨ B_ITAK organized a common-sense meeting to determine
the education needs of our institutions for the next 10 years,
where measures to be taken towards raising the necessary
human resources in the space field e particularly researchers,
basic scientists, engineers, social scientists, experts and
managers e were negotiated. Representatives of 41 institu-
tions attended the meeting, alongside some 80 experts,
managers, scientists and researchers, who shared their
opinions and suggestions. Postgraduate and PhD grant support
was initiated by TU¨ B_ITAK in the areas shown below.
5.1.3. Space education, space scholarship programme
While interest and ambition within society is high in
Turkey, educated human resources are not adequate and the
number of potential entrepreneurs is low. Education and
training infrastructure must therefore be strengthened. To this
end TU¨ B_ITAK has initiated a Scholarship Programme for
MSc and PhD students in specific space-related disciplines to
meet Turkey’s long-term expert and researcher needs. Around
450 graduates with good degrees applied for this grant in 2008
and 2009 and 21 students have been sent abroad for Master of
Science and PhD studies.
5.1.4. National space technology platform
As Turkey’s progress in space activities has accelerated
since 2005, so the necessary institutions to build up space
technologies should be established. These institutions should
be coordinated for a more useful and effective use of Turkey’s
resources. Establishing a common platform will further
enhance coordination and cooperation among institutions.
A National Space Technology Platform was to be created in
2009, being a consortium of high-tech companies and RD
institutions. Its main objective will be to encourage increased
usage of RD and innovation to strengthen competition. The
functions of the platform will include determining moderni-
zation needs and the vision of the sector, publicizing the
strategic research agenda and providing concrete imple-
mentation proposals. It also aims to jointly prepare research
and commercial space projects through international cooper-
ation and to promote space activities in Turkey.
TU¨ B_ITAK is the ‘‘responsible institution’’ for establishing
‘‘National Technology Platforms’’ according to Prime
Ministry Circulars 2006/31 and 2005/9 [19]. Its first step was
to initiate technology platform studies in sectors like
electricity and electronics, textiles, marine, automotive
industries, metallurgy, energy, medicine and agriculture.
5.1.5. New establishments and conventional bodies
transformed into space research centers
As decided by SCST in March 2005, the mission and
objectives of some Turkish Institutions such as B_ILTEN (the
Information Technologies and Electronic Research Institute of
TU¨ B_ITAK) have been renewed and they have been trans-
formed into space-related organizations like TU¨ B_ITAK UZAY
(TU¨ B_ITAK Space Technologies Research Institute). The main
goal of this transformation is to build institutional capacity in
space activities. Similar examples are the Aerostructure and
Space Group at Turkish Aerospace Industries (TAI), Space
Technologies Research Center at Bilkent University, the
Aeronautics and Space Department at Middle East Technical
University (METU), the Radio Astronomy Observatory at
Erciyes University and Space Systems Design Laboratory
(SSDL) at _Istanbul Technical University (_ITU¨ ). New small and
medium-size enterprises (SMEs) are also being established.
5.2. International cooperation
Turkey’s participation in international space-related activi-
ties has in the past been limited to membership in one or two
international space organizations. Since 2005, however,
TU¨ B_ITAK has taken a significant role in international space
activities, resulting, inter alia, in an ‘Agreement Between the
228 T. O¨ zalp / Space Policy 25 (2009) 224e235

6. Government of Turkey and the European Space Agency con-
cerning Cooperation in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space
for Peaceful Purposes’ being signed on 15 July 2004 (entered
into force 22 September 2006) [22], and a five-year MOU with
the Russian Federal Space Agency, Roscosmos, signed on 8
August 2009 to establish mutually beneficial cooperation in the
field of the exploration and use of outer space for peaceful
purposes.
In the field of space technology and applications Turkey
became a founder member of APSCO with TU¨ B_ITAK as its
official representative. Negotiations for the enhancement of
bilateral relations and/or to promote cooperation in areas of
mutual interest are also ongoing with the German Space
Agency (DLR), the British National Space Centre (BNSC), the
Netherlands Space Office and the National Space Agency of
Ukraine (NSAU).
In 2007 TU¨ B_ITAK became a full member of the NGO
Eurisy (an independent body fostering collective action for
bridging space and society) and actively participates in the
implementation of Eurisy’s programmes of activities, as well
as attending its various workshops.[18] Key players from the
European and Turkish space communities met on 22 and 23
October 2007 for the Eurisy conference ‘‘Areas and Mecha-
nisms for Collaboration between Turkish and European Actors
in Space Activities’’. TU¨ B_ITAK has recently become the 74th
full member of the Global Earth Observation Group (GEO);
the third GEO European Projects Workshop was to be hosted
in Istanbul in October 2009. It has started negotiations to
become a member of the International Astronautical
Federation.
Turkey has ratified the main international treaties on space,
such as the Outer Space Treaty, the Rescue Agreement,
Liability Convention and Registration Convention [20]. In order
to ensure the country’s active enrollment in the UN Committee
on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS), TU¨ B_ITAK
started coordination efforts with the Turkish Ministry of
Foreign Affairs and related institutions. In February 2008 it
made a presentation on Turkey’s recent activities in space
technology. In accordance with a UN General Council decision
TU¨ B_ITAK has also attended meetings of the UN-SPIDER,
which was established in January 2007 as ‘‘a Platform for
Space-based Information for Disaster Management and Emer-
gency Response’’, and has started to work in cooperation with
the Ministry of Public Works and Settlement and Ministry of
Foreign Affairs. Efforts are being made to develop bilateral
relations with UNESCO: TU¨ B_ITAK applied to become
a partner in the ESA/UNESCO ‘Space Agencies Open Initiative
on space technologies to support the World Heritage Conven-
tion’ in 2009. TU¨ B_ITAK is also an active member and
contributor in CEOS, COSPAR, ISPRS and DMC.
5.2.1. Regional earth observation dialogue platform
‘‘SharEARTH’’
Under TU¨ B_ITAK’s coordination, attempts have been made to
establish an earth observation platform for dialogue, called
‘‘SharEARTH’’, for the Black Sea. Germany, Russia, Ukraine,
Romania, Bulgaria, Greece, Luxembourg, Moldova, Azerbaijan,
Italy, Hungary, Croatia, Georgia, Slovakia and Slovenia have
also expressed an interest in participating in this platform. A
workshop was held on 24e25 July 2008 in Ankara, aiming to
establish possible mechanisms to form a platform in the Black
Sea basin [11].
5.3. Space and society
Studies on space and society have been initiated in order to
increase public awareness of space and its importance.
TU¨ B_ITAK provides support to facilities that aim to introduce
space and space sciences to primary and high school students,
teachers and the public. Each year it organizes National
Observation Festivals in this context: over 500 people attended
the 2008 festival in Antalya [11]. During the festival, seminars,
training facilities, opportunities to use a telescope and compe-
titions were organized [11]. In addition, seminars have been
given to some 5000 primary and high school students by Ankara
University Observatory and TU¨ B_ITAK National Observatory.
TU¨ B_ITAK also supports the training of teachers on space
issues. The Turkish Space Research Group (SpaceTurk), a non-
profit volunteer student group, was founded to work on space
research. Its main aim is to create public awareness of space
research and its contribution to social development [24]. At the
time of writing much concrete progress has been made in
Turkey on the basis of the National Space Research Program
and coordination among our institutions and enterprises has
been improved. Further improvement is observed in the pres-
tige, efficiency and international visibility of Turkey in the field
of space research.
6. Academic research and engineering capability
The Turkish scientific user community has good research
and working potential and experience in certain fields covering
science, exploration and space applications. Scientific research
capabilities are generally of very high standard and in prin-
ciple able to support participation in space activities world-
wide. While Turkey has since the 1930s possessed a science,
aeronautics and aerospace culture its capabilities need to be
improved for use in space systems.
6.1. Space science, astrophysics and astronomy
Research in astrophysics, space science and other fields
related to space is carried out at several universities. Turkish
scientists have distinct experience as users of international
scientific satellites and space observatories and are relatively
active in software development and instrument building. There
is an active group in high energy astrophysics, organized for
research activities as the Working Group in High Energy
Astrophysics in Sabancı University. Turkey’s Astrophysics of
Neutron Stars (ASTRONS) project is supported by EU FP6
Marie Curie. Since the 1970s a number of Turkish scientists
have worked on data from international space observations like
SAS 2, COS B, HEAO-1 and 2, EXOSAT, Ariel V, IUE, ROSAT,
ASCA (Japan), CGRO (NASA) Beppo SAX and RXTE
229T. O¨ zalp / Space Policy 25 (2009) 224e235

7. (NASA), Chandra (NASA), XMM(ESA), INTEGRAL(ESA-
NASA-RSA), submitting proposals for observation time and
doing scientific research with their own or archival data [23].
There are many astronomy and space sciences departments
in Turkish universities; some university-owned observatories
are also used by space science departments for education and
research [23e25]. The TU¨ B_ITAK National Observatory
(TUG) in Antalya is an astronomical research and develop-
ment institute within TU¨ B_ITAK with a variety of telescopes
[25].
Individual scientists and groups doing research on space-
related topics are supported and funded by the universities,
TU¨ B_ITAK and the State Planning Organization. Some of the
research involving international collaboration, such as COST
activities, is organized at the small group scale. A commonly
used source of support for such collaborative research is the
NATO Science Programme. Several Turkish astrophysicists
are involved in research collaboration with NASA as visiting
scientists. Turkish engineers are working on materials (crystal
growth) under microgravity conditions. Other Turkish scien-
tists are carrying out research on near space in collaboration
with groups in the UK.
Likewise, Turkish space scientists working on the Earth’s
magnetosphere, ionosphere and near space are interested in
joining ESA science projects and making use of data from
ESA missions (e.g. Cluster). Turkish scientists are already
involved in joint research with groups from ESA member
countries. Universities and Research Centers such as Bo˘gazic¸i
University, Kandilli observatory, Hacettepe University,
IONOLAB center and Middle East Technical University,
Aerospace Department, have good competence for participa-
tion in international space research activities.
Radio astronomy studies are in the development phase. The
first National Radio Astronomy Observatory is under
construction at Erciyes University and has technical specifi-
cations for at least a 30 m antenna at 1.4e32 GHz range in
Turkey’s latitude and longitude. It is supported by the State
Planning Organization (SPO).
In addition, space studies performed at the Faculty of
Aeronautics and Space Sciences at _Istanbul Technical
University are continuing in the domain of near-ground space
sciences and in the field of design-structure-material. In order
to train and improve managers in aerospace, an Aerospace
Master of Business Administration programme has been
organized. It became operational in 2002 with international
participants [26]. Studies particularly focusing on magnetic
field activities of the Sun and on deep space take place at both
the Anatolian and Aegean Universities. Other fields studied
using space activities are weather forecasting reports and
images acquired by ground observation satellites. These
reports and images are made use of in planning observation
studies.
6.2. Earth observation
In general Turkey has a growing Earth remote sensing
activity in the public and private sector. There is clearly a good
understanding of the technology and its applications and there
is a demonstrated ability to manage training and research in
these areas.
In the context of studies relating to Earth sciences, research
and applications are performed in the field of remote sensing
and GIS. In addition, parallel to the expertise of research
personnel, studies on risk maps, numerical map production,
erosion risk maps, effective databases of numeric maps, land
application maps, analysis maps to be used for planning in
times of disaster, and analysing satellite images and aerial
photos are being carried out in the fields of environment,
geophysics and city and regional planning. Along with these
applications, courses are given to public institutions and
organizations on remote sensing and GIS. To achieve
comprehensive, coordinated and sustained observations of the
Earth’s system to improve monitoring of the state of the
planet, Turkish Universities have carried out studies with
international organizations. These studies are intended to
contribute to the implementation of GEOSS.
6.3. Aeronautics, astronautics and space engineering
Building on existing competence, Turkish universities are
aiming to produce aeronautical, astronautical and meteoro-
logical engineers who are modern and creative, have strong
social qualities and can perform national- and international-
level scientific studies. The design of a pico-satellite in
a university environment, production of an engineering model,
modeling of components for satellite design and unmanned air
vehicle projects are encouraging steps in Turkish space
research activities [26,27].
The Aeronautics and Space Technologies Institute (ASTIN)
was founded in 2001, initially offering graduate programs in
aeronautics, electronics, computing and industrial engineering
[28]. To take account of the requirements of the Air Force and
ensure that the latter is not left behind in the space race, an
aerospace program was initiated in the 2003e2004 academic
year, offering Master of Science and PhD programs. ASTIN’s
mission, as mandated by the requirements and plans of the
Turkish Armed Forces, is to assist in training personnel that
are adaptable to the requirements of the rapidly developing
science and technology field, able to employ universal
knowledge, modern, scientific, employing information crea-
tively, and able to both safeguard national benefits and have
a secular and democratic conscience.
6.4. Recent Advances in Space Technologies (RAST)
conferences
RAST is a traditional biennial space event organized by the
Turkish Air Force Academy, Aeronautics and Space Tech-
nologies Institute (HUTEN) with worldwide participation. It
provides a forum for the presentation and review of recent
developments in space technologies with the emphasis on the
developing world. The fourth RAST Conference 2009 was
held in Istanbul on 11e13 June 2009 with the theme ‘Space
for the Developing World’ [28].
230 T. O¨ zalp / Space Policy 25 (2009) 224e235

8. 7. Space technology and development of industry
At present there is growing space-oriented industrial
activity in Turkey. A number of fields have been identified by
Turkish organizations for the establishment of facilities to
initiate a Turkish space industry and the technical facilities for
space research. Some of these are already in use, such as
telecommunication satellites and ground segments, while
others are being developed (mini/micro/small research satellite
technology projects).
Turkey has intermediate experience in direct space-based
hardware development and has good resources in high tech-
nology capability, basic engineering efficiency, working
culture and international quality standards. The country has
gained experience in main system projects such as Earth
observation, (scientific, research-based) satellites and in the
operational management of ground stations for communica-
tions. There are clear initiatives to acquire the necessary
expertise and technology to build satellites, e.g. at TU¨ B_ITAK-
UZAY and at TAI, with its small satellite project and next
generation satellites [29,31].
Space exploitation involves high cost and high risk.
Focusing on the environment near to space with its current
developed capacity might seem a healthy approach to lower
the cost and risk. Many important tests and measurements can
be done before entering space itself. Using such devices
during testing of satellite systems’ structures and operations
will give Turkey important experience [6].
There is a high level of technical expertise in Turkey’s
leading aerospace companies. They are able to integrate
a subsystem and deliver equipment for integration at system
and subsystem levels and provide ground-based support and
service activities. Turkish firms are also able to restructure
globally to take full advantage of economies of scale and
scope, and firms are playing a growing role in this process.
New firms are entering the industry. RD budgets are now
devoted to developing innovative space products.
Turkey is very interested in technology development and
educational activities to acquire experience in spacecraft
design, technology and operation, leading to autonomous local
capabilities in the long term.
There is a noticeable remote sensing activity in the private
sector. A major component is made up of companies that are
vendors of hardware and software. In the private sector
projects are often funded by municipalities or government
agencies and less frequently by major commercial entities
such as oil or mineral extraction companies or water supply
development projects [23].
8. Defense research perspectives
The fundamental approach in Turkey is to keep peace at
home and to keep peace in the world. For this reason, and
particularly after 2004, Turkey has placed great emphasis on
defense research activities. More resources and RD budgets
have been devoted by the central government to strengthen
Turkey’s capability. Particular attention is given to developing
space infrastructure in the areas of space-based remote sensing
systems such as electro-optical and Synthetic Aperture Radar
(SAR) systems, ground systems, and related subsystems for
carrying out intelligence, reconnaissance and surveillance.
In an ever changing world Turkey’s geography has become
increasingly important. Its location is geostrategically sensi-
tive and it needs to be able to continuously track what is
happening throughout its region. Space-based observation is
a must for this. Turkey aims to establish a non-dependent
space capacity by boosting its defense industry and research
institutions. The demand for space technologies such as
navigation, communication and earth observation satellites is
growing. Turkey plans to launch three earth observation
satellites for dual-use and RD purposes by 2012. Turkey is
also strengthening its common security and defense research
policy. Defense space research plays a strategic role in the
country in order to minimize duplication. Following the trend
for countries to base their defense industry policies on their
own priorities and indigenous abilities, Turkey believes it is
essential to support and maintain policies towards developing
national-priority-based systems and technologies inside the
country in the long term [12].
Therefore the SCST decided on 8 September 2004 to
reduce dependency on outside sources by supporting RD
defense projects by allocating sufficient and necessary
resources. Between 2006 and 2009 contracts for a total of 43
projects were signed, of which 30% of the total are space-
related. The total budget for these projects is TL517.9 million
[12]. Turkish defence industries [32,36] are now able to
manufacture authentic products and have a wide research and
development programme, with TU¨ B_ITAK as their main
supporter. There are subsystem producers, large firms, SMEs,
research institutions and universities [36].
9. Space-based assets and applications
Space systems offer governments the means to reduce their
dependency on information provided by foreign national space
assets. Because of Turkey’s geostrategic position, it is
important for the country to have earth observation and
communication satellites. The satellites Turkey has owned so
far were procured as turnkey craft from foreign sources.
Because developing these space assets is a lengthy and costly
process, it requires long-term financing and a space infra-
structure in the country.
Turkey’sprincipalspaceassetsarecommunicationandremote
sensing satellites. There are appropriate ground segments and
operational receiving stations. These are also used to better
manage natural resources and extend services (e.g. telemedicine,
distance education, telecommunications, broadcasting, interna-
tionalcommunicationsand directtohomesatellitetelevision,and
meteorology) to the population, particularly in remote areas.
9.1. Satellite communication
Turkey already has three European-built (by Alcatel)
communications satellites (Tu¨rksat 1C, Turksat 2A, Turksat
231T. O¨ zalp / Space Policy 25 (2009) 224e235

9. 3A) in orbit [30]. Tu¨rksat manages and operates all three
satellites and provides all types of satellite communications
through these and other satellites. Tu¨rksat ground stations
located in Go¨lbasxı, Ankara are fully capable of handling
satellite operations. Communication with satellites is
performed by means of 11 m and 9 m antennae at the main
station and one 9 m antenna at the back-up station. Tu¨rksat
provides TV and radio broadcasting as well as data and tele-
phone transmission services for Turkey, Europe and Central
Asia. Tu¨rksat AS is the only satellite operating company in
Turkey and fulfils the functions of establishing and operating
communication infrastructure over the satellites. It is also
efficiently and effectively operating a cable infrastructure in
the country. The duty of establishing, operating and managing
an e-government gateway has been assigned to Tu¨rksat under
the coordination of the Ministry of Transportation. These
projects are commercially successful and fulfill government
needs in the short term.
9.2. Earth observation
An earth remote sensing satellite called B_ILSAT was
launched in 2003. BiLSAT is a technology transfer project
aimed at acquiring small satellite technologies. The project is
being conducted with Surrey Satellite Technology Ltd (SSTL).
The infrastructure necessary for the design and manufacturing
of small satellites has been established, including a clean room,
module-level workshop, test laboratories and design office.
A ground station has been established in TU¨ B_ITAK UZAY to
operate BiLSAT. Two payloads for the satellite e GEZGIN and
COBAN e were designed and manufactured by TU¨ B_ITAK
UZAY staff in Turkey and integrated into BiLSAT [29].
RASAT is another technology demonstration satellite, with
an optical system with 7.5 m resolution Pan and 15 m MSI and
new modules. It was developed by Turkish engineers, and will
be the first designed and manufactured earth observation
satellite in Turkey. RASAT is expected to be launched by 2010
[29]. Finally there is a dual-use satellite project, ‘‘Scientific
Research and Satellite Technology Development with 2.5
meter imaging system’’, which was initiated in 2007 as a joint
venture between TU¨ B_ITAK UZAY and TAI in order to meet
the satellite data needs of the Turkish Armed Forces and
public institutions. The satellite is expected to be launched by
2012. The client of the project is the Ministry of National
Defense. Ongoing studies in satellite technology can be
considered a startup towards the design and manufacturing of
satellite systems in the context of the capabilities and infra-
structure gained so far.
9.3. Assets under construction
Turkey will possess a very high resolution Electro-Optical
(EO) Reconnaissance and Surveillance Satellite GO¨ KTU¨ RK
(procured from Thales Alenia, main contractor Telespazio)
that will serve both military and civil purposes [32]. The
Assembly, Integration and Test (AIT) Facility, to be estab-
lished at TAI, will ensure the assembly, integration and tests of
reconnaissance and surveillance, communication, early-
warning and research satellites up to 5 tons. This will give it
a capability of simultaneous assembling, integrating and
testing three satellites. A dedicated fixed ground station
(Ankara) and a mobile ground station will be established for
command and control tasks, and image download, processing
and exploitation operations of all reconnaissance and
surveillance satellite systems. The images acquired by GO¨ K-
TU¨ RK will be used for applications in transportation, forestry
and environment, disaster management, production of data for
geographical maps, survey and cadastre, and monitoring of
natural resources.
9.4. Remote sensing ground receiving stations
Istanbul Technical University’s Center for Satellite
Communications and Remote Sensing is one of the foremost
institutions around the world with a highly capable ground
receiving station unit [33]. It was established on the campus in
2000. The system makes it possible to receive in real time,
store, archive and process data and procure standard images,
as well as to work with different satellites, as a result of the
station’s modular nature. It can receive Earth images in an area
within a radius of 3000 km, from Sweden to Sudan and
England to Kazakhistan. The station will be capable of
capturing and processing data transmitted by optical and radar
satellites such as SPOT, ERS-2, Radarsat, NOAA and
Meteosat. The main antenna is 13 m in diameter. Communi-
cation with satellites will be performed by means of a 4.5 m
antenna. There is another ground receiving station near
Ankara, owned by a private company INTA, which has
imaging rights to IKONOS satellite data in Eurasia and also
receives imagery from SPOT-5, operating since 2001.
10. Cooperation with Europe
In 2000 the Government of the Republic of Turkey
delegated TU¨ B_ITAK to start negotiations with ESA over
a framework cooperation agreement. This was a follow-up to
the exchange of information between TU¨ B_ITAK and ESA
representatives after preliminary contacts were established in
1997 and in 1998.
As mentioned above, the Framework Cooperation Agree-
ment was signed in Ankara and entered into force on 22
September 2006 for a period of five years [22]. Areas offering
potential for cooperation encompass space science, earth
observation research and applications, telecommunications, in
particular service demonstrations and satellite navigation,
microgravity research, and ground segment engineering and
utilization. Cooperation activities may take the form of
exchange of scientists, fellowships, co-organization of
symposia and conferences, joint activities connected with
experimentation on and utilization of products and services
developed within the framework of agency programmes, or
promotion of educational activities in space science and
technology and in law.
232 T. O¨ zalp / Space Policy 25 (2009) 224e235

10. Some cooperative activities are already taking place, such
as the hosting of an EGNOS RIM station in Golbasi, Ankara;
a specific Announcement of Opportunity for the utilization of
ERS and Envisat data by the Turkish scientific community;
participation of Turkish students in ESA summer schools;
post-doctoral fellowships; and ESA test facilities for Turkish
satellites. The Turkish General Directorate of Disaster Affairs
is set to become an Authorized User of the Charter on ‘Space
and Major Disasters’ through its first small satellite, BiLSAT,
part of the Disaster Management Constellation. In addition,
a number of activities related to short courses, joint working
groups, workshops, expert visits, training, and outreach events
under an Implementation Plan for 2009e2011 have been
approved by both parties. In July 2008, an official visit jointly
organized by TU¨ B_ITAK and ESA to the European Space
Research and Technology Center (ESTEC), in Noordwijk took
place. Eighteen Turkish experts working on space technolo-
gies at related public and industry institutions and universities
participated in the visit and a common dialogue platform was
established [11].
Turkey envisages a transition period for adjustment and
adaptation to ESA activities. It has also expressed its strong
interest in increasing and strengthening relations, with a view
to possible full membership of the agency in the future.
10.1. European Commission (EC) and European
Union (EU)
Turkey has take part in many international aerospace
projects as a reliable, competitive partner. Existing FLA and
JSF projects are perfect examples for Turkish Industry. TAI
has been participating in the design and development activities
of the A400 M program with the leading European aerospace
companies, namely Airbus (France, Germany, Spain and UK),
EADS CASA (Spain) and FLABEL (Belgium), from the
beginning of the project [31]. The Turkish engine manufac-
turer Tusas Engine Industry (TEI) is another major company
which cooperates with European partners (such as the Euro-
Prop International TP400-D6 engine for the A400 M) and with
ITP (Industria de Turbo Propulsores) of Spain in the produc-
tion of the three-shaft turboprop engines. Turkish Airlines is
a strong player in the country’s air transport sector. Aircraft
component manufacture and maintenance is a growth sector in
Turkey and these companies are keen to seize opportunities in
a market so close at hand. The private sector is currently not
strong enough in the Turkish aerospace market, which is
jeopardizing the chance of competition in the face of low-cost
alternatives.
Turkey enjoys quite sizeable participation in the EU FP6
aerospace thematic area in comparison with others and
Turkish organizations have participated in EU-funded GMES
activities. Researchers have improved their performance with
respect to FP6 in FP7 and Turkey has also participated in
several space-related COST actions. The country participated
fully in the EU’s Seventh Framework Program in science and
technology in order to increase science and technology
cooperation with EU member states and become a part of the
ERA [8].
In December 1999 Turkey was declared an official candi-
date for accession to the EU. Turkey’s membership in the
Council of Europe, OECD and OSCE and its policies prior-
tizing a free market economy are positively affecting the
development of economic and political relations with Europe.
Among international scientific and technological organiza-
tions, Turkey is a member of COST, and a full member of
EUREKA, Eurocore, ERAB, EuroHorc, ESF, COSPAR,
Eumetsat, Eutelsat and Inmarsat [8,30].
11. Governance
Apart from its utility in traditional disciplines (such as
energy, medicine, education, agriculture, security, etc.), space
has other applications and is a preferential and fundamental
development sector that contributes to welfare and progress.
When this reality and the current condition are considered, it is
obligatory for Turkey to give priority to space studies.
However, the country’s potential and ability in the space field
have been hampered by a lack of governance mechanisms and
necessary institutional legislation.
The only existing institutional regulation and government
commitment is the National Space Research Programme
discussed above [34]. There is no a single ‘‘centre of authority
in a hierarchy with defined tasks’’ in Turkey. Instead, decision-
making is diffuse, taking place collectively through public
institutions. There are different layers of space activities and
different actors with decision-making authority. Since 1990
certain government agencies, led by TU¨ B_ITAK in coordina-
tion with the Ministry of Transportation and the Turkish Air
Force have attempted to identify a central organization for
space activities in Turkey. Today official studies for a bill are
continuing and in the coming years a Turkish Governance
Organization for space activities may be established. In the
absence of a governance authority, TU¨ B_ITAK is taking the
first steps in coordinating space RD activities with funding
subject to approval.
In parallel with these remarks, the importance of estab-
lishing an institutional structure to implement Turkish space
policy is significant when the world’s progress and Turkey’s
current situation are taken into consideration. The establish-
ment of such an organization would be a significant invest-
ment in Turkey’s people and the country itself.
Besides these challenges for governance, Turkey must
decide why and in which category it will participate in the
space enterprise and whether it will follow other countries’
example or build a viable space organization according to its
own model and structure.
12. Conclusion
Space is not just a tool for understanding the Universe, it has
become a fundamental sector where countries’ development
policies are implemented and new frontiers are opened towards
the future economic and social welfare of humanity. The
233T. O¨ zalp / Space Policy 25 (2009) 224e235

11. effectiveness of countries’ space activities is usually related to
their degree of human development and the budget expenditure
ratios they allocate to space. Apart from its utility in funda-
mental sectors (such as energy, water, medicine, education,
agriculture, security, etc.), space has other applications and is
a preferential and fundamental development sector that
contributes to welfare and progress.
For many years Turkey lagged behind in these develop-
ments, despite having a great potential and enough capacity to
compete with the world. The world space market will be worth
about US$160 billion in 2010, one and a half times Turkey’s
export income and Turkey is out of this market. Yet space is
a strategic area of great importance for Turkey’s development.
Moreover, despite having a sufficient and potential infra-
structure, realizing Turkey’s potential in space is hampered by
a lack of the mechanisms needed to activate this potential.
Turkey must invest in new fields like space in order to
continue to develop, enrich its society and increase the quality
of life. The use of space technologies must become more
widespread in order to strengthen the economy and to develop
the industry and services required by an advanced civilization.
When this reality and the current geostrategic condition of the
country are considered, it is clear that Turkey must give
priority to space research. Space is now a strategic field and
a vision for Turkey.
And indeed Turkey has made continual progress in space
activities since 2005, both industrially and with its institutions.
However, there is need for the establishment of more institu-
tions to build up space technologies. These institutions should
be properly coordinated for a more effective use of Turkey’s
resources. Establishing a common platform will further
enhance coordination and cooperation among institutions.
Turkey is aiming to raise the percentage of GDP it spends
on RD and has greatly increased the amount of public
investment in RD. In 2004 Turkey took a major decision
under the custody of the Prime Ministry to use its RD
resources to achieve high development standards for the
country’s future. This article has discussed the strategic role of
space in Turkey as an emerging power. An important increase
in space projects in Turkey (public, university and industry
focused) has been observed. In three years around 350 space
research projects worth around V125 million have been
proposed to TU¨ B_ITAK by Turkish organizations. These
activities hold a strategic significance for government policy
implementation and the advanced development of the country.
In the end, the points on which Turkey must decide are,
first, in which categories of the space enterprise should Turkey
participate, and, second, will Turkey follow other countries’
example or will it build a viable space organization according
to its own model and unique structure?
Acknowledgement
I am very pleased to acknowledge the Scientific and Techno-
logical Research Council of Turkey, TU¨ B_ITAK. I particularly
thank to Ms Sxu¨kran Yu¨cesoy U¨ nal for her kind help.
References
[1] TU¨ B_ITAK, 1993, Turkish science and technology policy (1993e2003),
Supreme Council for Science and Technology, 2. Meeting, Ankara.
[2] TU¨ B_ITAK MAM, 1994, UB_ITEK Special publication 94/6,8,10, Gebze
Kocaeli (unpublished).
[3] TU¨ B_ITAK, 1998, Assessments regarding progresses and decisions,
Supreme Council for Science and Technology 4.Meeting e June 1998,
SCST, Ankara
[4] TU¨ B_ITAK, 1999, Assessments regarding progresses and decisions,
Supreme Council for Science and Technology 5.Meeting e December
1999, SCST, Ankara
[5] TU¨ B_ITAK, 2004, Assessments regarding progresses and decisions,
Supreme Council for Science and Technology 10.Meeting e March
2005, SCST, Ankara
[6] TU¨ B_ITAK, 2005, Assessments regarding progresses and decisions,
Supreme Council for Science and Technology 11.Meeting e March
2005, SCST, Ankara
[7] TU¨ B_ITAK, 2007, Assessments regarding progresses and decisions,
Supreme Council for Science and Technology 15.Meeting e March
2007, SCST, Ankara
[8] http://www.tubitak.gov.tr.
[9] State Planning Organization, DPT, Pre-Accession Economic Programme
2008, Ankara, 2009, p. 108.
[10] TU¨ B_ITAK, 2006, Assessments regarding progresses and decisions,
Supreme Council for Science and Technology 14.Meeting e September
2006, SCST, Ankara
[11] TU¨ B_ITAK, 2008, Assessments regarding progresses and decisions,
Supreme Council for Science and Technology 18.Meeting e December
2008, SCST, Ankara
[12] TU¨ B_ITAK, 2009, Assessments regarding progresses and decisions,
Supreme Council for Science and Technology 19.Meeting e June 2009,
SCST, Ankara
[13] OECD. The space economy at a glance. Paris: OECD; 2007.
[14] Space Foundation. The space report, the guide to global space activity;
2006. p. 174.
[15] Verger F, Sourbes-Verger I, Ghirardi R, Pasco X. The Cambridge ency-
clopedia of space, missions, applications and exploration. Cambridge
University Press; 2003. p. 418p.
[16] OECD. Space 2030: exploring the future of space applications. Paris:
OECD; 2004.
[17] OECD. Space 2030: tackling society’s challenges. Paris: OECD; 2005.
[18] http://www.eurisy.org.
[19] Prime Ministry, Official Gazette No: 27310, Supreme Council for Science
and Technology 18. And 19.Meeting, Circular 2009/16, August 2009.
[20] United Nations treaties and principles on outer space and related General
Assembly Resolutions, Addendum Status of international agreements
relating to activities in outer space as at 1 January 2009, ST/SPACE/11/
Rev.2/Add.2, 2009 p. 18.
[21] TU¨ B_ITAK, 2008, Assessments regarding progresses and decisions,
Supreme Council for Science and Technology 17.Meeting e May 2008,
SCST, Ankara.
[22] http://www.esa.int.
[23] TU¨ B_ITAK, 1998, Space Related Activities in Turkey, An Overview,
(unpublished).
[24] http://www.spaceturk.org.
[25] http://www.tug.tubitak.gov.tr.
[26] http://www.uubf.itu.edu.tr.
[27] http://www.ae.metu.edu.tr.
[28] http://www.hho.edu.tr.
[29] http://www.uzay.tubitak.gov.tr.
[30] http://www.turksat.com.tr.
[31] http://www.tai.com.tr.
[32] http://www.ssm.gov.tr.
[33] http://www.cscrs.itu.edu.tr.
[34] Prime Ministry, Official Gazette No: 25784 Supreme Council for Science
and Technology 11. Meeting, Circular 2009/5, April 2005.
234 T. O¨ zalp / Space Policy 25 (2009) 224e235

12. [35] United Nations, International cooperation in the peaceful uses of outer
space: activities of Member States, Office for Outer Space Affairs,
Document A/AC.105/661, 1996. p. 60.
[36] http://www.sinerjiturk.org.tr.
[37] TU¨ B_ITAK, 2007, Assessments regarding progresses and decisions,
Supreme Council for Science and Technology 16.Meeting e November
2007, SCST, Ankara
[38] United Nations, International cooperation in the peaceful uses of outer
space: activities of Member States Office for Outer Space Affairs,
Document A/AC.105/923, 2008. p. 13.
[39] United Nations, International cooperation in the peaceful uses of outer
space: activities of Member States, Office for Outer Space Affairs,
Document A/AC.105/907, 2007. p. 24.
235T. O¨ zalp / Space Policy 25 (2009) 224e235