Instrumental Analysis: Spectrophotometric techniques can be used to analyze light-matter interactions. Key components of a spectrophotometer include light sources, monochromators to filter wavelengths, and detectors. Monochromators use diffraction gratings or prisms to separate wavelengths. Detectors like photomultipliers and photodiode arrays convert light signals into electrical signals. Spectrophotometers can be single or double beam, with double beam reducing errors. Fluorescence spectroscopy analyzes emission from electronically excited molecule, providing information about electronic structure.

1. Instrumental Analysis:
Spectrophotometric
Diploma
Dr. Basma Al- Sudani
Lecture 2

2. •Understand interaction between light and matter
(absorbance, excitation, emission, luminescence,fluorescence,
phosphorescence)
•Describe the main components of a spectrophotometer,
(sources, monochromators, detectors, interferometer, grating, ATR, ICP, )
Objective

3. Background knowledge:
What you are expected to know before the course:
Error analysis in quantitative analysis
Solve linear equations
Complementary colour
Exponential and logarithm
What you are recommended to know before the course:
Least square fitting
Basic quantum chemistry
Molecular symmetry

4. (Lecturer contents of instruments based on light interaction
with matter)
• Properties of light
• Molecular electronic structures
• Interaction of photons with molecules
• Spectrophotometer components
• Light sources
• Single and double beam instruments
• Monochrometers
• Detectors
• Fluorescence spectroscopy

5. Light travelling speed:
in other media: c/n (n = refractive index, generally >1)
in a vacuum: c=2.998 x 108 m s-1 (n=1 exactly, in air n=1.0002926)
c/n= nl
Therefore:
Energy is inversely proportional to wavelength
but proportional to wavenumber
And of course, the relationship between energy and frequency:
E = hn = hc/l = hc n
h = Planck’s constant (6.626 x 10-34 J s)
n = wavenumber (most common units = cm-1)
~
~
Light is energy in the form of electromagenetic field
Review on properties of light: photon
Wavelength (l): Crest-to-crest distance between waves
Frequency (n): Number of complete oscillations that the wave makes each second
units: number of oscillations/sec or s-1 or Hertz |(Hz)

6. Frequency Scanning Techniques: a few definitions
Emission method: source of light is sample
Absorption method: intensities of a source with and without the sample in place are
compared
Spectrum: a plot of intensity vs. frequency/wavelength
In quantitative analysis:
common to work at 1 wavelength
running a spectrum is an important initial step (to select best conditions)

7. Regions of Electromagnetic Spectrum-the “colour” of light

8. Electronic structures of simple molecule
S0
S1
T1
Bond length
D
Ground state
Excited state
Singlet
Excited state
Triplet
Energy
Dissociated states
Vibration
states

9. Interaction between photon and molecule
S0
S1
T1
D
S0
S1
T1
S0 S1 transition
A F
IR
UV-vis
P

10. Electronic structures
Singlet and triplet
Bond length for ground and excited states
Vibrational structures-infrared absorption/transmission (FTIR)
Internal conversion
Intersystem crossing
Photon adsorption excitation (Beer’s law, UV-vis)
Frank Condon condition and The Stokes' shift
Radionless relaxation and vibration relaxation
Luminescence-fluorescence/phosphorescence
Key concept from energy diagram

11. Type of optical spectroscopy
UV-vis absorption spectroscopy (UV-Vis)
FT-IR absorption/transmission spectroscopy (FTIR)
Atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS)
Atomic fluorescence spectroscopy (AFS)
X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XFS)
What you will learn:
The excitation mechanism
Monochromator design
Instrument principle
Quantitative methods

12. Optical spectrophotometer components
Monochromators
Filters
Grating+slit
prism
Excitation sources
Deuterium Lamp
Tungsten Lamp
Laser
X-ray tube
Mercury lamp
Xenon lamp
Silicon carbide globar
Flame
Furnaces
Plasmas
Hollow-cathode lamp
Detectors
PMT
CCD/CID
Photodiode
Thermocouple
MCT
Pyroelectric detector
UV
UV-vis
X-ray, UV, vis, IR
X-ray
UV-vis
UV-vis
IR
What is the advantage and disadvantage?

13. Design of optical spectrophotometers
Single Beam vs. Double Beam
"Instrument designs for photometers and spectrophotometers”
(a) single-beam design
(b) dual channel design with beams separated in space but
simultaneous in time
(c) double-beam design in which beams alternate between two
channels."
(a)
(b)
(c)
Q: what’s the advantage of double beam spectrophotometer?

14. Light sources
Black-body radiation for vis and IR but not UV
- a tungsten lamp is an excellent source of black-body radiation
- operates at 3000 K
- produces l from 320 to 2500 nm
For UV:
- a common lamp is a deuterium arc lamp
- electric discharge causes D2 to dissociate and emit UV radiation (160 – 325 nm)
- other good sources are:
Xe (250 – 1000 nm)
Hg (280 – 1400 nm)
( How much in cm-1, J, Hz and eV?)
Lasers:
- high power
- very good for studying reactions
- narrow line width
- coherence
- can fine-tune the desired wavelength (but choice of wavelength is limited)
- £££ expensive £££
What is the important properties of a source?
Brightness
Line width
Background
Stability
Lifetime

15. Sample a source containers:
for UV: quartz (won’t block out the light)
for vis: glass [l 800nm (red) to l 400 nm (violet)]
for IR: NaCl (to or 15384 nm or 650 cm-1)
KBr (to 22222 nm or 450 cm-1)
CsI (to 50000 nm or 200 cm-1)
Optical transmission coefficient
Best material: diamond, why?
High transmission
Chemically inert
Mechanically strong
Criteria

16. Monochromators
Early spectrophotometers used prisms
- quartz for UV
- glass for vis and IR
These are now superseded by:
Diffraction gratings:
- made by drawing lines on a glass with a diamond
stylus
ca. 20 grooves mm-1 for far IR
ca. 6000 mm-1 for UV/vis
- can use plastic replicas in less expensive
instruments
Think of diffraction on a CD
http://www.mrfiber.com/images/
cddiffract.jpg
http://www.ii.com/images/prism.jpg
10mmx10mm
Why?

17. Monochromators: cont’d
Polychromatic radiation enters
Second concave mirror focuses each wavelength at
different point of focal plane
Orientation of the reflection grating directs only one
narrow band of wavelengths to exit slit
The light is collimated the first concave mirror
Reflection grating diffracts different
wavelengths at different angles
http://oco.jpl.nasa.gov/images/grating_spec-br.jpg
What is the purpose of concave mirrors?

18. Interference in diffraction
d
q
f
d sin(q)+d sin(f)=nl
n=1, 2, 3 In-phase
n=1/2, 3/2, 5/2 out-phase
q>0
f<0
Bragg condition
Phase relationship

19. Monochromators: reflection grating

20. Monochromators: reflection grating
Each wavelength is diffracted off the grating at a different angle
Angle of deviation of diffracted beam is wavelength dependent  diffraction grating
separates the incident beam into its constituent wavelengths components
Groove dimensions and spacings are on the order of the wavelength in question
In order for the emerging light to be of any use, the emerging light beams must be in phase
with each other
Resolution of grating: l
Dl
=nN
Angular resolution:
As: d sin(q)+d sin(f)=nl
So: n Dl=d cos(f) Df
Therefore: Df/Dl=n/[d cos(f)]
What does this mean?
n: diffraction order
N: number of illuminated groves

21. Monochromators: slit
Bottom line:
- it is usually possible to arrange slits and
mirrors so that the first order (n = 1) reflection
is separated
- a waveband of ca. 0.2 nm is obtainable
However, the slit width determines the
resolution and signal to noise ratio
Large slit width: more energy reaching the
detector  higher signal:noise
Small slit width: less energy reaching the
detector BUT better resolution!

22. Detectors
Choice of detector depends upon what wavelength you are studying
Want the best response for the wavelength (or wavelength range) that you are studying
In a single-beam spectrophotometer, the 100% transmittance control must be adjusted
each time the wavelength is changed
In a double-beam spectrophotometer, this is done for you!
: Radiation-----charger converter

23. Photomultiplier-single channel, but very high sensitivity
- Light falls on a photosensitive alloy
(Cs3Sb, K2CsSb, Na2KSb)
- Electrons from surface are
accelerated towards secondary
electrodes called dynodes and
gain enough energy to remove
further electrons (typically 4-12,
to 50 with GaP).
- For 9 stages giving 4 electrons for
1, the amplification is 49 or 2.6 x
105)
- The output is fed to an amplifier
which generates a signal
- To minimise noise it is necessary to
operate at the lowest possible
voltage
What decide the sensitive wavelength?

24. Photodiode Array-multiplex, but low sensitivity
Good for quick (fraction of a second) scanning of a full spectrum
Uses semiconductor material:
Remember: n-type silicon has a conduction electron – P or As doped
p-type silicon has a ‘hole’ or electron vacancy – Al or B doped
A diode is a pn junction:
under forward bias, current flows from
n-Si to p-Si
under reverse bias, no current flows
boundary is called a depletion layer or
region

25. Photodiode Array
- Electrons excited by light partially discharge the condenser
- Current which is necessary to restore the charge can be detected
- The more radiation that strikes, the less charge remains
- Less sensitive than photomultipliers  several placed on placed on single crystal
- Different wavelengths can be directed to different diodes
- Good for 500 to 1100 nm
- For some crystals (i.e. HgCdTe) the response time is about 50 ns
Could you compare photodiode with CCD detector?

26. Photodiode Array Spectrophotometer
- For photodiode array spectrophotometers, a white light passes through sample
- The grating polychromator disperses the light into the component wavelengths
- All wavelengths are measured simultaneously
- Resolution depends upon the distance between the diodes and amount of dispersion

27. Photodiode Array Spectrophotometers
vs Dispersive Spectrophotometers
Dispersive Spectrophotometer:
- only a narrow band of wavelengths reaches the detector at a time
- slow spectral acquisition (ca. 1 min)
- several moving parts (gratings, filters, mirrors, etc.)
- resolution: ca. 0.1 nm
- produces less stray light  greater dynamic range for measuring high absorbance
- sensitive to stray light from outside sources i.e. room light
Photodiode Array
Spectrophotometer:
- no moving parts  rugged
- faster spectral acquisition (ca.
1 sec)
- not dramatically affect by room
light
What are the components 1 to 10?

28. Property of luminescence spectrum
Fluorescence vs phosphorescence
1. Phosphorescence is always at longer wavelength compared with fluorescence
2. Phosphorescence is narrower compared with fluorescence
3. Phosphorescence is weaker compared with fluorescence
Absorption vs emission
1. absorption is mirrored relative to emission
2. Absorption is always on the shorter wavelength compared to emission
3. Absorption vibrational progression reflects vibrational level in the electronic excited
states, while the emission vibrational progression reflects vibrational level in the
electronic ground states
4. l0 transition of absorption is not overlap with the l0 of emission
Why?
Why?

29. Fluorescence spectroscopy

30. Fluorescence spectroscopy
Emission spectrum: hold the excitation wavelength steady and measure the emission at
various wavelengths
Excitation spectrum: vary the excitation wavelength and vary the wavelength measured
for the emitted light
Light source
Excitation
monochromator
Reference
diode
Beam
splitter
sample
Emission
Monochromator
Amplifier Computer
PMT
Q: why the emission is
measured at 90 relative to
the excitation?

31. Fluorescence spectroscopy: well defined molecules

32. • Describe the main components of a spectrophotometer and distinguish between
single double beam instruments
• Describe suitable sources for ultraviolet (UV)/visible (vis), infra red (IR) and atomic
absorption (AA) instruments
• Describe and assess advantages and disadvantages of various monochromators e.g.
Prism, diffraction gratings
• Explain how to asses the quality of grating
• Explain how photomultipliers and diode detectors work
• Explain the advantage of multiplex detecting
• Describe the luminescence spectroscopy and energy transfer process
• Compare the emission and absorption spectrum
Summary of spectrophotometric techniques