Evolution 2013: Dr Sarah Jones, University of Wolverhampton on Exploring the Potential of Cell Penetrating Peptides for Effective Drug Delivery

1. The Latest Discovery: Exploring the Potential of
Cell Penetrating Peptides for Effective Drug
Delivery
Dr Sarah Jones
Molecular Pharmacology Research Group, University of
Wolverhampton

2. Overview
 History and Background of CPPs
 Hurdles and Progress
 Where the field is at the moment
 Targeting Protein-Protein Interactions,
from Bioportides to Sperm

3. Cell Penetrating Peptides
(CPPs)
• Inert vectors for the delivery of
bioactive cargoes into the
intracellular milieu
• Intracellular delivery of Peptides,
Proteins, Drugs,
Oligonucleotides (siRNA, PNA),
Plasmids
• Viable alternative to viral vectors
and current non-viral
intracellular delivery

4. CPP History: A Long Time Coming!
 1988 - The TransActivator of
Transcription protein (TAT) derived
from the HIV virus entered cells
 1994- Penetratin –Helix 3 of the
Antennapedia homeodomain
 1997 - Tat48-60, a truncated
arginine-rich sequence conferred
cellular penetration.
Tat
AntHD43-58 Penetratin

5. Classification of CPPs
Protein-derived
Chimeric
Penetratin
Tat48-60
pVEC
RQIKIWFQNRRMKWKK-NH2
Transportan
GWTLNSAGYLLGKaINLKALAALAKKIL-NH2
Transportan 10
GRKKRRQRRRPPQ
LLIILRRRIRKQAHAHSK
AGYLLGKaINLKALAALAKKIL-NH2
PepFects
Synthetic/Designed
Polyarginine
RRRRRRRR
(RXR)4
(R(Ahx)R)4
CADY
Ac-GLWRALWRLLRSLWRLLWRA-Cya

6. Most CPP are polycationic sequences
Primary Sequence
Name/Source
HIV-1 Tat-derived peptides
GRKKRRQRRRPPQ
QPPRRRQRRKKRG
Tat48-60
RI-Tat
Penetratins
RQIKIWFQNRRMKWKK
RRRRRRRQIKIWFQNRRMKWKK
AntHD43-58 (Penetratin)
R6-Penetratin
Other arginine-rich peptides
RRRRRRRRR
(R(Ahx)R)4
R8 and R9 are the most common
(RXR)4
Predominantly amphipathic sequences
AGYLLGKINLKALAALAKKIL
INLKKLAKL(Aib)KKIL
LLIILRRRIRKQAHAHSK
Transportan10
Mitoparan
pVec
Hydrophobic Sequences
CSIPPEVKFNKPFVYLI
C105Y

7. Uptake mechanisms, a fixation!
Direct membrane
translocation (4oC)
Fixation artifacts (Live cell imaging)
Endocytosis (37oC, ATP)
Clathrin-mediated
Caveolin-mediated
Macropinocytosis
Dependent upon sequence, cell type, concentration and cargo
(biochemical properties and size)

8. To Endocytose or not to Endocytose? That is the question
Mishra A et al.
Translocation of HIV TAT
peptide
and analogues induced by
multiplexed membrane and
cytoskeletal interactions
PNAS (2011) 108 16883

9. Progress in CPP Technologies
PepFect Technologies
AGYLLGKINLKALAALAKKIL-NH2
TP10
PepFect3
Stearyl-AGYLLGKINLKALAALAKKIL-NH2
PepFect6
Stearyl-AGYLLGKINLKALAALAKKIL-NH2
PepFect14
Stearyl-AGYLLGKLLOOLAAAALOOLL-NH2
• Oligonucleotide therapeutics-siRNA and
splice correcting oligonucleotides
• Ecsapes endosomal entrapment
associated with the delivery of larger
cargoes
Ülo Langel Stockholm University
CPP Technologies in Clinical Development
• PsorBan (CellGate) – heptaarginine coupled to cyclsporin A (psoriasis)
• KAI-9803 (Kai Pharmaceuticals) - tat coupled to a peptide inhibitor of PKCd (reperfusion injury)
• XG-102 (Auris Medical)– tat coupled to a JNK inhibiting peptide (traumatic hearing loss)

10. What Cell Penetrating Peptides DO NOT DO!
The Lipinski Rule of Five
•Its molecular weight is less than 500.
•The compound's lipophilicity, expressed as a quantity known as logP (the logarithm of the partition
coefficient between water and 1-octanol), is less than 5.
•The number of groups in the molecule that can donate hydrogen atoms to hydrogen bonds (usually
the sum of hydroxyl and amine groups in a drug molecule) is less than 5
•The number of groups that can accept hydrogen atoms to form hydrogen bonds (estimated by the
sum of oxygen and nitrogen atoms) is less than 10.

11. Bioactive Cell Penetrating Peptides (Bioportides) Enhance the Repertoire of Druggable
Targets
Expansion of Druggable Targets
It is estimated that 8-10% of the
human genome encodes diseasemodifying proteins
Only 10% of the druggable genome
can be targeted by conventional
approaches (SMDs)
New Chemical Entities which target
Protein-Protein Interactions are
gaining momentum as an attractive
therapeutic modality
Proteomics and interactomics will
identify many other PPIs that can be
modulated by peptides
Intracellular Drug Target Space

12. Mast cell secretion
Activation of
p42/44
MAPK

13. Sychnologic CPP
Rhegnylogic CPP
Sequence
Target
Activity
Nosangiotide
ND
Anti-angiogenic
Sequence
Target
Activity
Pathology
Camptide
G proteins
cAMP modulation
Tat-DI1
Raf
dimerizatio
n
Inhibits proliferation of NSCLC
cell lines
Cancer
Cyt c77-101
ER
Apoptogenic
BIP
BAX
Antp-MEK1
ERK
Inhibition of ERK2 activation
Cancer
Anti-apoptogenic
(neuroprotection)
Tat48-60-P10
PCNA
Apoptogenic
Cancer
Mouse PrP1-28
Prion Proteins
Anti-prion infection
STAT-6-IP
STAT-6
Inhibitor of TH2 cytokine
production
Allergic
airways
disease
AT1AR304-318
G proteins
Blood vessel
contraction
Hph-1ctCTLA-4
TcR
signalling
Inhibition of TcR signalling.
Reduction in Th2 cytokines,
serum IgE
Allergic
airways
disease
Vasostatin-1
Heparan Sulphate
Proteoglycans
eNOS activation
(vasodilatory)
Arf (1-22)
ND
Apoptogenic
Mitoparan
VDAC (mitochondria)
Apoptogenic
Stapled p53derived peptides
p53-hDM2
Reactivation of p53
apoptosis pathway
Tat-acpTrkA666-676
Nup153-Cyt
TrkA
activation
loop
TrkA antagonism
NPC
Apoptogenic
Inflammator
y pain
Cancer

14. Bioactive Cell Penetrating Peptides - Bioportides
Signal
Transduction
Domain
Position
85
IKKKEERADLIAYLKK
2
16
86
KKKEERADLIAYLKKA
3
17
84
GIKKKEERADLIAYLKK
3
17
85
IKKKEERADLIAYLKKA
3
17
QSAR Prediction Algorithm
No. of
Amino
Acids
16
Whole
Protein
Sequence
86
KKKEERADLIAYLKKAT
2
Prediction algorithm: Hällbrink et al. Int. J. Peptide Res. Ther. 11, 249 (2005)
CPP mimic of GPCRs: Ostlund et al. Int. J. Peptide Res. Ther. 11, 237 (2005)
CPP
Probability

15. Anti-angiogenic Properties of Nosangiotide (eNOS492-507)
A Bioportide Derived from Endothelial Nitric Oxide Synthase
Nosangiotide is
located within the
a-helix domain
(shown in yellow)
that tightly binds
calmodulin. Diagram
adapted from Aoyagi et
al., EMBO J. 22, 766-775
(2003)
Sequence
RKKTFKEVANAVKISASLMG
RKKTFKEVANA
RKKTFKEVANAVK
RKKTFKEVANAVKI
RKKTFKEVANAVKISA
Early distribution
Cells were incubated for
45 mins with rhoeNOS492-507 (5mM) in
endothelial cell medium
plus growth supplement
then transferred to
DMEM w/o phenol red
for confocal visualization
CPP Index
Later nuclear and
cytoplasmic
distribution
1
3
3
3
3 Nosangiotide
Cells were incubated for
80 mins with rhoeNOS492-507 (5mM) in
endothelial cell medium
plus growth supplement
then transferred to DMEM
w/o phenol red for
confocal visualization

16. Nosangiotide (eNOS492-507) Inhibits Biological Features of FGF-induced Angiogenesis
in vitro
(a)
(b)
(c)
250
1750
90,000
80,000
70,000
mean of closed areas per field
number of migrated cells
cell number
1500
1250
1000
200
150
100
750
60,000
500
-9
-8
-7
492-507
log { [eNOS
-6
] (M) }
Proliferation
IC50 = 83.7 nM
-5
-8
-7
log { [eNOS
-6
492-507
Migration
IC50 = 38.2
nM
-5
] (M) }
-4
50
-9
-8
-7
-6
492-507
log { [eNOS
-5
-4
-3
] (M) }
Tube Formation
IC50 = 509 nM
Nosangiotide is a potent inhibitor of FGF-2 (25 ng/ml)-induced proliferation (a), migration (b) and tube
formation (c) of primary endothelial cells

17. Nosangiotide inhibits FGF-induced angiogenesis
A) Carrier control
B) FGF-2 (200ng)
C) Nosangiotide (0.5 nmole)
D) FGF-2 plus nosangiotide (0.5
nmole)
E) FGF-2 with nosangiotide (0.05
nmole)
F) FGF-2 with nosangiotide
(0.005 nmole).
Howl et al. (2012) Cell. Mol. Life Sci.
69, 2951 .

18. Identify Bioportide
Binding Partners
Future Work
Stapled
Peptides
Biotinylated CPP as
Molecular Fishing Rods
C-terminal helix
N-terminal helix
Biotinylated CPP
Primary Sequence Position
KGKKIF
KGKKIFI
GKKIFIMK
KGKKIFIM
KGKKIFIMK
EKGKKIFIMK
Swiss 3T3
Streptavidin-coated multiwell
plates
Primary Sequence
5-10
5-11
6-13
5-12
5-13
4-13
Position
VGIKKK
KMIFVGIKKK
KMIFVGIKKKEERA
KKKEERADLIAYLKKA
GIKKKEERADLIAYLKK
IKKKEERADLIAYLKKA
VGIKKKEERADLIAYLKK 83-100
GIKKKEERADLIAYLKKA
FVGIKKKEERADLIAYLKK 82-100
VGIKKKEERADLIAYLKKA
IFVGIKKKEERADLIAYLKK 81-100
FVGIKKKEERADLIAYLKKA
KMIFVGIKKKEERADLIAYLK 79-99
MIFVGIKKKEERADLIAYLKK 80-100
IFVGIKKKEERADLIAYLKKA
KMIFVGIKKKEERADLIAYLKK 79-100
MIFVGIKKKEERADLIAYLKKA
TKMIFVGIKKKEERADLIAYLKK 78-100
KMIFVGIKKKEERADLIAYLKKA79-101
GTKMIFVGIKKKEERADLIAYLKKA
TKMIFVGIKKKEERADLIAYLKKA
KMIFVGIKKKEERADLIAYLKKAT
GTKMIFVGIKKKEERADLIAYLKKA77-101
TKMIFVGIKKKEERADLIAYLKKAT
KMIFVGIKKKEERADLIAYLKKATN
83-88
79-88
79-92
86-101
84-100
85-101
84-101
83-101
82-101
81-101
80-101
77-101
78-101
79-102
78-102
79-103
 Cross linking of peptide side chains
TRYPSIN
DIGEST
 Metabolic stability
 Enhance propensity for cellular
penetration
Dr Ashley Martin
MALDI
TOF/TOF
Proteomics Unit Cancer Studies
University of Birmingham, UK
a-aminoisobutyric
acid

19. LRRK2-derived Bioportides
Highly Probable CPPs collectively
spanning the entire LRRK2 protein
CPPs containing mutations known to cause
Parkinson’s disease
Sequence
Position
Sequence
Position (mutation)
TLKKLIVRLNNVQEGKQI
15-32
KKQCFKNDIHKLVLAALNRFI
534-554 (K544E)
RKILLSKGIHLN
433-444
SPKLVELLLNSGSREQDVRKAL
754-775 (P755L)
KLVLAALNRFIG
544-555
QIISLLLRRLALDVANNSICLG
785-806 (R793M)
RKALTISIGKGDSQIISLLLRR
772-793
NLRKQTNIASTLARMVIRYQMK
828-849
GNKISGICSPLRLKELKILNL
1116-1136 (I1122V)
LLKRKRKILSSDDSLRSSKLQ
945-965
ATVGIDVKDWPIQIRDKRKRDL
1367-1388 (I1371V)
SPLRLKELKILNLSKN
1124-1139
LISLLAAGIRPRMLVMELASKG
1932-1953 (R1941H)
KKTEKLCGLIDCVHFLREVMVK
2378-2399 (G2385R)
HIGCKAKDIIRFLQQRLKKAVP
1310-1331
LQQRLKKAVPYNRMKLMIV
1322-1340
GSGKTTLLQQLMKTKK
1344-1359
ATVGIDVKDWPIQIRDKRKR
1367-1386
KQRKACMSKITKELLNKRGFPA
1460-1481
LAKLRKTIINESLNFKIRDQLV
1497-1518
PVIDRKRLLQLVRENQLQL
1546-1564
AVKIFNKHTSLRLLRQ
1904-1919
LISLLAAGIRPR
1932-1943
RLLQQDKASLTRTLQHRIA
1957-1975
LTRRILLPKNVI
2140-2151
KTVKLKGAAPLKILNIGN
2278-2295
RVKTLCLQKNTALWI
2413-2427
LLLDLSTRRLIRVI
2435-2448
IEVRKELAEKMRRT
2511-2524
> 5000 Probable
CPP

20. LRRK2: Not just Parkinsons!
 LRRK2 role in Inflammatory
Bowel Disease (Liu, Z. et al.,
(2011) Nature Immunology 12,10631070)
LRRK2
 LRRK2 sequesters NFAT in the
cytoplasm
 LRRK2 deficiency enhances
susceptibility to experimental
colitis and enhances nuclear
localization of NFAT
 NFAT Luciferase reporter assay (Armesilla, A.L. et al. (1999) Mol. Cell. Biol. 19, 2032-2043)
 Bioportides facilitate relocation of NFAT from the cytoplasm to the nucleus?
 Bioportides abrogate PMA and Ca2+ ionophore induced relocation of NFAT?
 The role of the Immune System in PD

21. Candidate Bioportides for Modulation of NFAT Translocation
LRRK21310-1331
T2397M
LRRK21124-1139
LRRK215-32
1
ARM
LRRK21116-1136
I1122V
ANK
LRR
LRRK22378-2399
LRRK21367-1386
ROC
G2385R
COR
Kinase
WD40
Leucine-Rich
Repeat domain
KLEQLILEGNKISGICSPLRLK
GNKISGICSPLRLKELKILNL
LRRK21116-1136
GNKISGVCSPLRLKELKILNL
LRRK21116-1136 (I1122V)
SPLRLKELKILNLSKN
LRRK21124-1139
LRRK21310-1331 (C-terminal helix)
Inhibits NFAT translocation
2527
Van Craenenbroeck et al., (2012) Purification and
preliminary biochemical and structural
characterisation of the leucine rich repeat domain
of LRRK2. Biochem. Biophys. Acta 1824, 450
WT inhibits NFAT translocation
Mutant enhances NFAT translocation
Enhances NFAT translocation
HIGCKAKDIIRFLQQRLKKAVP

22. LRRK22378-2399 includes the very common T2397M risk allele for Crohn’s Disease
LRRK21310-1331
T2397M
LRRK21124-1139
LRRK215-32
1
ARM
LRRK21116-1136
I1122V
ANK
LRRK2-derived bioportides
modulate NFAT translocation. HEK293 cells were transiently transfected
with a luciferase reporter vector
(pNFAT-Ta-Luc; Clontech). Luciferase
activity was measured as an indicator
of NFAT translocation to the nucleus.
Cells were stimulated with PMA (20
ng/ml) and the calcium ionophore
A23187 (1 mM) for 16 hours.
Luciferase activity was calculated as
fold induction over the value of the
reporter vector in un-stimulated cells.
LRR
LRRK22378-2399
LRRK21367-1386
ROC
COR
Kinase
G2385R
2527
WD40

23. Building Cell Selectivity into CPP Delivery
•
CPP can be readily incorporated into
multimeric complexes
•
An inherent lack of specificity can be
surmounted by the inclusion of
tissue specific targeting peptides
•
Phage Display Technology has
generated an abundance of tissue
homing peptides

24. Building Cell Selectivity into CPP Delivery
Homing Peptides
CPP
Sequence

25. Peptide-Based Glioma-Targeted Drug Delivery Vector gHoPe2
Coronal section of a mouse brain with U87 tumor in the right striatum. The tumour area is circled with a
dotted line. (B) H&E stained hemisphere of brain and glioma. (C) The animals received an i.v. injection of
FAM-labeled gHoPe2 3 h before tissue collection
Liver
Kidney
Intracranial Tumour Model
Intact brain
Intracranial
tumour
FAM-gHo
Eriste, E., Kurrikoff, K., Suhorutsenko, J., et al. Bioconjugate Chemistry (2013). In press
Scale 100 μm.
FAM-gHoPe2

26. Building Cell Selectivity into CPP Delivery
Activatable CPPs
Exploitation of tissue specific endopeptidases
cargo
++++++++++++++
cargo
++++++++++++++
-----------Cellular internalization
impaired
Cellular internalization
MMP2
Matthias Hallbrink – NoPe (YTA4 + MMP-2 cleavage site + inactivationg region) -tumour imaging in vivo.

27. The Challenge: Penetrating the Impenetrable
Internal Volume
Nucleus
•
•
•
Is reduced.
Mature sperm lacks a variety of
organelles: endoplasmic reticulum,
Golgi apparatus, cytosolic ribosomes.
•
Once Spermatozoa are released into the
seminiferous tubules, genomic transcription and
translation have largely been silenced.
Conventional molecular biology techniques are
thus redundant. Modulation of sperm cell
biology is restricted to cell permeable agents.
Plasma Membrane
•
•
•
•
Lipid composition of plasma membrane is highly
polarized and compartmentalized.
It appears to be incapable of endocytotic events.
Static physical barrier
Detergents are detrimental to protein function
http://www.flickr.com/photos/wellcomeimages/5814253423/

28. Understanding Sperm Biology with CPP
Sperm are transcriptionally and translationary inactive
Studies of their intracellular biology are restricted to cell permeable agents
CPP are ideal vehicles for the study of sperm intracellular biology, from motility
to capacitation and the acrosome reaction
Can be easily isolated from bulls semen with supplemented EBSS containing
0.3% BSA (“swim up method”)
sEBSS
(0.3% BSA)
semen

29. Differential Intracellular Distribution of CPP
6
5
4
3
2
1
13
21
iM
rV
1a
R
10
P
0
Ta
t
10
5Y
M
itP
TP
10
iM
it P
Rho-C105Y (5mM)
7
C
Rho-tat (5mM) + DIC
8
Rho-C105Y (5mM)
tr
at
in
Rho-penetratin (5mM)
Mitotracker (500nM)
Rho-tat (5mM) + DIC
C105Y
Fluorescence minus background (A.U.)
Rho-penetratin (5mM)
Tat
Pe
ne
Penetratin
Comparative analysis of CPP translocation
efficacies into bovine spermatozoa.
Spermatozoa were incubated with TAMRAlabelled CPP (5 mM) for 1 h at 37 oC. Data are
mean + S.E.M. from 3 experiments performed
in triplicate.

30. The Mitochondrial-localising CPP Mitoparan
Rho-MitP (5mM)
Rho-MitP (5mM)
Mitotracker (500 nM)
Mitotracker (500 nM)
merge
Mitochondrial Midpiecei
Rho-TP10
(5mM)
Mitotracker (500 nM)
merge

31. . Protein
Delivery
Rho-TP10 (3 mM) + avidin Alexa Fluor® 488 (1 mM)
Spermatozoa
Merge
DIC
Avidin
Merge
Swiss 3T3
TP10
Swiss 3T3
Rho-TP10 (1 mM) + avidin Alexa Fluor® 488 (0.33 mM)
Rho-TP10 (3 mM) + avidin Alexa Fluor® 488 (1 mM)
Merge
Avidin
Merge
Avidin
TP10
Merge
DIC
TP10
Merge
DIC

32. Why are CPP unable to deliver large proteins into sperm?
Translocation Kinetics of C105Y
Endocytosis Incompetent Spermatozoa
Swiss 3T3
Swiss 3T3
Spermatozoa
Spermatozoa
Transferrin Alexa Fluor® 488
(50 mg/ml)
Transferrin Texas Red®
(50 mg/ml)
LysoTracker® Red (75 nM))
LysoTracker® Red (75 nM))
Dextran Texas Red®
(10 mM)
Dextran Texas Red®
(10 mM)
10
8
t0.5 = 0.70 min
6
C105Y
tat
4
rV1aR102-113
2
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Fluorescence minus background (A.U.)
Fluorescence minus background (A.U.)
10
12
8
6
t0.5 = 7.02 min
rV1aR102-113
2
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Time (min)
Time (min)
Internalisation occurred with first order saturable
kinetics (F = Fmax x t/t0.5 + t, GraphPad Prism 5).
C105Y
tat
4
Cells were incubated at 37oC with TAMRA-labelled peptides (5mM)
for the times indicated. Normalised data (compared to tat-assigned
a value of 1) are expressed as mean fluorescence (minus
background) + s.e.m. from 3 experiments performed in triplicate.
Direct membrane translocation is the sole mechanism of CPP import into sperm

33. Bioportides as Modulators of Human Sperm [Ca2+]i Signalling
STIM1 ORAI1 Activating Region
442
334
EEELE
CC1
(248-342)
CC3
? STIM1
(485685)
KIKKK
CC2
CC2
CC2
EEEL
E
+++
CC1
CC3
(364-388) (399-432)
+
---
Occluded SOAR
CC1
KIKKK
CC3
? STIM1
(485685)
Free SOAR
Orai1
Plasma membrane
 Progesterone-the
best-characterised
agonist of human
sperm [Ca2+]i
signalling.
 Motility and the
acrosome reaction
 Biphasic [Ca2+]i
response
Store depletion
Endoplasmic reticulum
STIM1
STIM1371-392
H-KQLLVAKEGAEKIKKKRNTLFG-NH2
Scr- STIM1371-392 H-LKNKFKGVKLAEIEKQALKGTR-NH2

34. A
140
B
120
100
80
60
Non-capacitating
MitP
nosangiotide
tat
40
20
0
0
20
40
60
80 100 120 140 160 180
120
100
80
60
Capacitating
camptide
40
Cyt c 5-13
C105Y
20
0
0
20
40
60
80 100 120 140 160 180
C
100
90
% cell viability
140
Time (min)
Time (min)
110
% motile cells (*rapid) relative to controls
% motile cells (*rapid) relative to controls
CPP Import is Compatible with Sperm Motility and Viability
A, B. Motility data were collected from human sperm cells treated with 5 mM CPP.
80
C105Y
MitP
tat
iMitP
iMP
penetratin
nosangiotide
70
60
50
40
30
Each peptide was tested on samples from 3 individual donors. Data are shown as %
rapid cells from treated samples relative to that of controls and expressed as mean +
s.e.m. *rapid cells = velocity (average path) ≥25 µms-1 and straightness ≥ 80%.
C. Isolated bovine spermatozoa were treated with CPP for 1 h at the concentrations
20
indicated. Cell viability was measured by MTS conversion and expressed as a
10
percentage of those spermatozoa treated with vehicle alone (sEBSS).
0
-6.0
-5.5
-5.0
-4.5
log { [peptide] (M) }

35. Conclusions
 CPPs for site-specific delivery of bioactive
cargoes into mammalian sperm
 Cargo size is critical
 CPP technologies as valuable tools for the
investigation and modulation of
fundamental processes of sperm
physiology such as maturation,
capacitation, motility, hyperactivation and
fertilisation.
Pantechnia
Jones, S., Lukanowska, L., Suhorutsenko, J., Oxenham, S., Barratt, C., Publicover, S.,
Copolovici, D.M., Langel, Ü. and Howl, J. (2013) Intracellular translocation of cell
penetrating peptides into spermatozoa. Human Reproduction DOI:
10.1093/humrep/def064.

36. The Future for CPP
Therapeutics
Modifications to enhance stability are now
surmountable
Routes of administration
Mechanisms for moving forward
Marcus Evans Discovery and Evolution Summits
Mass Screening, Formulation and Analogues

37. Acknowledgements
Scientific contributors
University of Wolverhampton, UK
John Howl
Monika Lukanowska
University of Birmingham, UK
Michelle Farquhar
Ashley Martin
Steve Publicover
MRC Protein Phosphorylation Unit,
University of Dundee, UK
Dario Alessi
University of Dundee, UK
Chris Barratt
Senga Oxenham
Department of
Neurochemistry,
Stockholm University, Sweden
University of Tartu, Estonia
Ulo Langel
University of Manchester, UK
Shant Kumar