The Learning Process

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SP O SC E

The Learning
Process By Mr. Manuel M. Avenido, Jr.
DPE/CPE 101
Cebu Technological University
(Foundation of Education)

At the end of the lecture,
learners are expected to:
1 . understand the nature of learning;
2. know the types of learning;
3. familiarize the theories of learning; and
4. recognize the factors affecting the “transfer of
learning.”

Teaching as a Complex Process
mentortutorfacilitator
moderator
guidance counselor
confidante
friend
mediator
adviser
curriculum maker
consultant leader
community
worker
evaluator

The learner as a social individual is
a...
unique individual
has physical, biological,
psychological, social,
and spiritual needs
follows a natural
pattern of
development tasks
has potentialities to
be explored
has an
impressionistic mind
is bombarded by sense stimuli and
uncensored influences
is a person in context
(family, community, and
nation)
is a human being
with a soul

Nature of Learning
1. Learning is a change or modification in the
behavior or capability of growth.

Nature of Learning
2. Learning process
refers to the series
of learning that
takes place.

Nature of Learning
3. The learner has a tremendous variety of talents,
capacities, and potentialities.

Nature of Learning
4. Individuals differ greatly in the amount and
equality of a talent or capacity they possess.

Nature of Learning
5. Learning process
depends to a large
degree on the
individuals'
capacities, motivation
and previous learning
and on the nature of
the stimulus
situation.

Nature of Learning
6. In the learning process, the individual brings to any
stimulus' situation sets, and stock of learned responses
from previous experiences in the form of knowledge,
concepts and generalization skills, abilities, and ways of
behavior.

Nature of Learning
7. A human individual
learns and behaves as
he or she attempts
new responses that
prove to have
satisfaction.
Law of Effect says that as the child finds learning
satisfying, then learning tends to be repeated, and if
the child finds learning annoying, learning tends to be
ignored.

Nature of Learning
8. Practice is necessary to inquire a specific skill.
Law of Exercise says that as the child
strengthens his or her learning, there must be
enough exercise to be given to create learning
mastery. Practice means perfect.

Nature of Learning
9. Practice with insight
and understanding of
the behavior is sought
to be desirable in
learning a fixed
responses or set of
responses.
Learning by doing.

Nature of Learning
10. To assure learned responses will be readily
available for use again, if these should be
repeated thereafter.
Law of Recency
says that the
most recent the
lesson is
repeated, the
better it is to
have retention.
Law of Fading
says that if
learnning is not
repeated, then,
there is a
tendency for
such to fade-off.

Nature of Learning
11. Learning has an experiential base.
Experience is the basis in most learning
whether adaptation, assimilation, and
organization.

Nature of Learning
12. The five essential
bases for learning in
stimulus situation are
motives, perception
and cognition, goal
setting, response and
reinforcement.

The five essential bases for learning in
stimulus situation
1. Motives are drives or intentions which serve as the basic
foundations on why a child learns.
2. Perception (acuity) and Cognition (understanding) are intellectual
skills of the child more especially used in the development of higher
order thinking skills.
3. Goal Setting is the aim or target that serves as basis in the whole
process of learning.
4. Response (reaction to existing stimuli) and Reinforcement
(keystone) area attitudinal skills of the child in responding to
stimuli and to underpin learning outcomes.

Nature of Learning
13. The greater the stock of generalized concepts
and principles a person has learned, the more
competent he can transfer learning.

General Principles of Learning

1. An individual learns more readily when
motivated.
= True
2. Excessive motivation is less effective than
moderate motivation.
= True
3. Learning under control or reward is NOT
preferable to under punishment.
= False

4. Learning under intrinsic motivation is
preferable to under extrinsic.
= True
5. Tolerance of failure is best taught through
backlog of sucess.
= True
6. Learner doesn't need practice in goal setting.
= False

7. Personal history may hamper or enhance
learning from a given task.
= True
8. Passive participation is preferable to active
participation.
= False
9. Meaningful materials are readily learned than
nonsense materials.
= True

10. No substitute for repetitivve practice over
learning of a skill.
= True
11. Information about performance, mistakes,
success do not assist the learner.
= False
12. Transfer occurs when relationship is
discovered.
= True

13. Distributed recalls are advantageous in fixing
materials.
14. Effort is put forth when tasks are challenging.
15. Learners engage in an activity they select and
plan.
16. Learners grouped by ability still vary
according to other criteria.
17. Learners think when
encountered by obstacles and
challenges.

18. Concepts should be presented in varied and
specified situation.
19. Pupils learn a great deal from each other.
20. Problems of "isolates" appear in all school.
21. No school subject is strikingly superior to any
other subject.
22. Learners remember new subjects that
conform to their attitudes.
23. Learning is aided by
formulation and asking
question.

Types of Learning
Learning is a change in behavior or in potential behavior that occurs
as a result of experience.

Three Major Types of Learning:
1) Learning through association
– Classical Conditioning
2) Learning through consequences
– Operant Conditioning
3) Learning through observation
– Modeling/Observational Learning

Classical Conditioning
•
If a neutral stimulus
(a stimulus that at
first elicits no
response) is paired
with a stimulus that
already evokes a
reflex response, then
eventually the new
stimulus will by itself
evoke a similar
response. Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov
(1849-1936)

Operant Conditioning
•
The organism operates
on its environment in
some way; the behavior
in which it engages are
instrumental to
achieving some outcome.
B.F. Skinner
(1904-1990)

•
LAW of EFFECT
If a response is followed
by a pleasant or satisfying
consequence, that
response will be
strengthened. If a
response is followed by
an unpleasant or negative
state of affairs, it will be
weakened.
B.F. Skinner
(1904-1990)

Differences Between
Operant and Classical Conditioning
1) In classical conditioning, the conditional behavior
(CR) is triggered by the particular stimulus (CS) and is
therefore called an elicited behavior. Operant behavior
is an emitted behavior in the sense that it occurs in a
situation containing many stimuli and seems to be
initiated by the organism. In a sense the subject chooses
when and how to respond.
2) In classical conditioning, behavior (CR) is affected by
something that occurs before the behavior (the CS-UCS
pairing). In contrast, the operant response is affected by
what happens after the behavior – that is by its
consequences.

•
Positive Reinforcement - any stimulus or event that
increases the likelihood of the occurrence of a behavior
that it follows.
•
Shaping - the method of successive approximations.
Shaping reinforces the behaviors as they get closer and
closer to the desired behavior.
•
Negative Reinforcement - anything that increases a
behavior that results in the reinforcers removal.
•
Punishment - any consequence that decreases the
future occurrence of a behavior that produces it.

When You Remove a Positive Stimulus
1. Extinction
If the stimulus is a reinforcer for the behavior (e.g.,
parent ignores child/withdraws attention when child
acts up to get attention)
2. Response Cost
If the stimulus is not a reinforcer for the behavior (e.g.,
parent takes away child's TV privileges when child acts
up to get attention)

Modeling/Observational Learning
•
Observational learning is
learning that occurs through
observing the behavior of
others. This form of learning
does not need reinforcement to
occur, but instead, requires a
model. A social model can be a
parent, sibling, friend, or
teacher, but—particularly in
childhood—a model is someone
of authority or higher status.
Albert Bandura
(December 4, 1925)

Bandura's Social Cognitive Learning Theory
1. Attention: Observers cannot learn unless they pay
attention to what's happening around them. This process
is influenced by characteristics of the model, such as how
much one likes or identifies with the model, and by
characteristics of the observer, such as the observer's
expectations or level of emotional arousal.
2. Retention/Memory: Observers must not only
recognize the observed behavior but also remember it at
some later time. This process depends on the observer's
ability to code or structure the information in an easily
remembered form or to mentally or physically rehearse
the model's actions.

Bandura's Social Cognitive Learning Theory
3. Initiation/Motor: Observers must be physically
and/intellectually capable of producing the act. In many
cases the observer possesses the necessary responses.
But sometimes, reproducing the model's actions may
involve skills the observer has not yet acquired. It is one
thing to carefully watch a circus juggler, but it is quite
another to go home and repeat those acts.
4. Motivation: Coaches also give pep talks, recognizing
the importance of motivational processes to learning.

Trial and Error/
Theory of Connectionism
•
Trial and Error is a
method of learning in
which various response
are tentatively tried
and some discarded
until a solution is
attained.
E.L.Thorndike
(1874-1949)

Features of Trial and Error
1. Learning by trial and error is gradual process.
2. For learning to occur, the learner must be definitely
motivated.
3. The learner makes random and variable response.
4. Some responses do lead to the goal (annoying response)
5. Some responses lead to the goal. (satisfying responses)
6. With the increase in number of trials the annoying
responses will tend to be eliminated and the satisfying
responses will be strengthened and repeated.
7. The time taken to perform the task (to repeat the
satisfying response) decreases with successive trials.

Thorndike's Law of Learning:
i) Law of Readiness : The law states "When any conduction unit is ready to
conduct, for it do so is satisfying. When a conduction unit is not ready to
conduct. for it to conduct is annoying. When any conduction is ready to
conduct, for it not to do so is annoying."
ii) Law of Effect: The law states "When a modifiable connection between a
stimulus and response is made and is accompanied or followed by a
satisfying state of affairs the strength of connection is increased. When a
connection between stimulus and response is made and accompanied or
followed by an annoying state of affairs , it strength decreases.
iii) Law of Execise: The law states "Any response to a situation will, other
things being equal, be more strongly connected with the situation in
proportion to the number of times it has been connected with that situation
and to the average vigour and duration of the connection."

Thorndike's Law of Learning:
The law has two sub parts: a) Law of Use and b) Law of Disuse
a) Law of Use states that "When a modifiable connection is made
between a situation and response that connection strength is
increased if it is practised."
b) Law of Disuse states that "When a modifiable connection is not
made between a situation and response, during a length of time, that
connection's strength is decreased." This means, any act that is not
practised for sometime gradually decays.

Association or Stimulus-Response Theory
The theory of stimulus and response - otherwise
known as cause and effect, can be regarded as the
foundation of behaviour. It is the foundations stone
on which we build our behaviour model.
In behavioural terms a stimulus is defined as the
influence which brings about or evokes an
identifiable response. A response is that human
behaviour which is caused or evoked by an
identifiable stimulus.

Association or Stimulus-Response Theory
When considering an S-R association one can
assume that the nature and strength of the
response and hence the association between the
stimulus and response will depend upon such
things as:
 The perceived strength of the stimulus
 The nature of the stimulus
 Frequency of application of stimulus
 The perceived value and relevance of the stimulus
 The person who the stimulus is applied.

Cognitive Field Theories of Learning/
Gestalt
•
Cognitive
Development Theory
emphasizes, "development
precedes learning." He
assumes that the child is
an active organism and
that development depends
in large part the child
manipulation of active
interaction with the
environment.
Jean Piaget

Gestalt
•
Psychological stages of
development states that
people pass through 8
psychosocial stages in
their lifetimes and as they
grow, they face a series of
psychosocial crises that
shape personality; each
crisis focuses on a
particular aspect of
personality and involves
the person's relationships
with others. Erik Erikson

Gestalt
•
Psycho-analytic and
psychosexual. The
psychosexual theory
focuses on the effects of
early childhood experience
to adult's behavior.
Sigmund Freud

Gestalt
•
Hypothetico-deduction
theory
Clark Hull

Gestalt
•
Theory on Motivation
Kurt Lewin

Gestalt
•
Cumulative Learning
Theory
Robert Gagne

Gestalt
•
Cognitive Map
Edward Tolman

Gestalt
•
Insight Theory
Wolfgang Kohler

Factors Affecting Transfer of Learning

The Learning Process

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