This is a detailed presentation on the management of rectal cancer. this presentation commenced with the definition of the rectum by rigid sigmoidoscopy followed by definition of high, middle and low rectum. this was follwed by the pathology and pathogenesis of colorectal cancer. I went further to discuss the various clinical presentations of rectal cancers either as emergency or elective cases. Finally, the presentation discussed on the various approaches to the treatment of rectal cancer, whether high, middle or low rectal tumor. furthermore, the discussion went to the local therapy for early rectal cancer. Finally, prognostic factors and follow up modality was discussed.
3. Introduction
• Cancer of the rectum, defined as a tumour within 15cm from the anal
verge, accounts for approximately 30% of all colorectal malignancies.
• There were 14440 new cases of rectal cancer registered in the UK in
2008.
20. Investigations- loco-regional staging
• Pelvic MRI- gold standard
T staging (75-85%) and
depth of invasion
peri-rectal LN (90-95%)
Circumferential resection
margin (CRM)- (90-95%)
21. Investigations- loco-regional staging
• Circumferential resection margin (CRM) in rectal cancer has been
defined as the non-peritonealized surface of a resection specimen
created by dissection of the subperitoneal aspect at surgery
• Many studies have demonstrated that CRM involvement is able to
predict local recurrence and poor prognosis in patients with rectal
cancer. 1-5
24. Clinical staging
• Dukes (based on histology of resection specimen)
• Astler-Coller modification of Dukes
• TNM staging
25. Clinical staging- TNM
• Tumor stage
• T0- no evidence of tumor
• Tis- carcinoma in situ
• T1- submucosa
• T2- muscularis propria
• T3- serosa or non-peritonealized
perirectal tissue
• T4- invasion of adjacent tissues
• Node
N1- 1-3 pericolic LN
N2- 4 or more pericolic LN
N3- LN along a named
vascular trunk
• Metastasis
Mx- metastasis can’t be
assessed
M0- no distant metastasis
M1- distant metastasis
26. Clinical staging
STAGE TNM LOCAL RECURRENCE (%) 5YR SURVIVAL (%)
I T1-2, N0 <5 93%
IIA T3 N0 8 85%
IIB T4 N0 15 72%
IIIA T1-2, N1 6 83%
IIIB T3 N1 8 64%
IIIC T3 N2 OR T4 N1-2 11 44%
IV any T, any N, M1 19-22 8%
27. Treatment of rectal cancer
• Surgery- Total Mesorectal Excision (TME)
Early disease
Primary tumor
metastatic dx
Late disease
• Chemotherapy
• Radiotherapy
28. Treatment- Surgery
• Upper rectum- 12-15cm from anal verge
Anterior resection
• Middle rectum- 7-11cm from anal verge
Low anterior resection using circular staples
• Low rectum- 0-6cm from the anal verge
Local therapy- TaE, TEM, TAMIS
Radical therapy- Abdominoperineal resection (APR)
29. Treatment- Surgery
• Low rectum- 0-6cm from the anal verge
Local therapy: Trans anal Excision
Trans anal Endoscopic Microsurgery(TEM)
Trans coccygeal excision
Trans phincteric excision
Radical therapy: Abdominoperineal resection (APR)
(Total Mesorectal Resection (TME))
30. Trans-anal Excision
Indications
• T1N0 or T2N0 tumor
• <4cm in diameter
• <40% of circumference
• 3cm from the dentate line
• Well to moderately
differentiated tumor
• No lymphatic or vascular
invasion
• Advanced dx who required
local control
31. Trans coccygeal
Excision
• T1N0 or T2N0 tumor
• 4.5-5cm from the
dentate like
• Popularized by Kraske
• Used for both anterior
and posteriorly located
tumor
35. Treatment- Surgical principles
• Pre-op
Low residue diet/bowel preparation
intravenous urography (IVU)/CT urography
ureteric stenting
antibiotics prophylaxis
PO Neomycin 1g at 1pm, 2pm & 10pm
IV Ceftriaxone and Metronidazole
DVT prophylaxis- compression stockings, heparin,
36. Treatment- Surgical principles
• Intra-op
assess the abdomen for
peritoneal/liver metastasis
mobilize the sigmoid from
the white line of Toldt
high(IMA) or low(Lt colic)
ligation of vascular control
37. Treatment- Surgical principles
• sharp dissection of pelvic
peritoneum using scissors or
diathermy
• no blunt dissection
• Preserve the hypogastic plexus
and sacral plexus (nerve
erigentes)
40. Treatment- Surgical principles
• Intra-op
resection margin
Vertical: proximal-5cm, distal-2cm (5cm in poorly diff.)
Radial/CRM: 3-5cm of mesorectum excised
specimen should be BILOBED shape
label proximal and distal segment
count the number of lymph nodes (12-15 LN)
Close the anal incision primarily or using muscle flap over a
perineal drain
41. Treatment- Surgical principles
• Post-op
DVT prophylaxis
antibiotics
analgesics
IVFluid
early ambulation
• Other therapy
Posterior vaginectomy
Pelvic exenteration
42. Treatment- Surgical principles
• Late disease
Permanent diversion followed by chemo-radiation
Palliative resection + permanent colostomy + chemotherapy
Palliative resection + restoration of GI continuity + chemotherapy
46. Complications
• Anastomotic leak
• Damage to pelvic autonomic nerve plexus: Bladder and erectile
dysfunction
• Surgical Infection
• Local recurrence
• Systemic recurrence
• Colostomy complications
47. Complications
• Local recurrence
Inadequate/incomplete
resection
avoid sphincter saving
procedure where an APR is
required in an attempt to be
heroic
Quality of life may be far
better with APR as compared to
sphincter-saving procedure with
local recurrence
• Tumor size
• Positive CRM
• Distal location of the tumor
• Extramural vascular invasion
• Tumor differentiation
• Nodal status
• Extent of extramural spread
• Peritoneal tumor spread
48. Follow up: NCCN guidelines
• Clinic visit every 3 month until 2yrs
DRE, CEA and sigmoidoscopy
• 1yr- colonoscopy and abdominopelvic CT scan
• After 2yrs, see every 6month until 5yrs
CEA and DRE
• After 5yrs, yearly visit
colonoscopy every 3-5yrs
49. Screening- sporadic CRC
Test Timing Probabality
FOBT Annually 30% reduction
Sigmoidoscopy 2-3yrs 50-60%
FOBT + Sigmoidoscopy 70-80%
Colonoscopy Every 10yrs
Barium enema Every 5yrs
CT colonography (Virtual
colonography)
5-10yrs
50. Summary
• Rectal cancer is any tumor within 15cm from the anal verge and
constitute 30% of colorectal tumors
• Classical features include Tenesmus, change bowel habit, bleeding per
rectum
• Pelvic MRI is now the gold standard for loco-regional staging and
detection of CRM
• Total Mesorectal Excision(TME) is now the treatment of choice to
improve Overall Survival(OS) and Disease Free Survival(DFS)
51. References
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52. References
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Chapters 29
53. References
7. O. James Garden and Simon Peterson-Brown: Colorectal Surgery, a
companion to specialist surgical practice, 5th edition, chapter 5
8. Norman, S. W., Christopher J.K.B., and P.Ronan O’ Connell (2008).
Bailey and Love principles and practice of Surgery, 25th edition, chapter
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