2. What are models
Models are a set of beliefs about
curriculum and curriculum work including
underlying assumptions
A curriculum development model is a
perfect example or copy to be followed in
developing the curriculum.
Other terms used to describe models
are; approach, image, orientation,
perspective or position
3. There are many approaches to
curriculum development.
They differ by the various perspectives
curriculum developers
construct(theory/idea) regarding the
key curricula elements--curriculum,
teachers, students and the context.
4. Some curriculum developers focus on
students and their learning goals
Others focus on the effect of the
teacher’s action upon learning.
While others focus on the context of
learning and the degree to which
individuals are viewed.
5. Most common about
approaches
Procedural - What steps should one
follow?
Descriptive - What do curriculum planners
actually do?
Conceptual - What are the elements of
curriculum planning and how do they relate
to one another?
6. Purpose of models
Are designed to provide a basis for
decisions regarding the selection,
structuring and sequencing of the
educational experiences
They represent a reasonable guide for
coherent thinking and acting in
curriculum
7. Common model types
The most common models followed
are;
1)Technical-Scientific Approach
2)Nontechnical-Scientific Approach
(Holistic)
8. 1) Technical-Scientific Approach
curriculum is objective, universal, and logical.
Reality can be defined and represented in
symbolic form
aims of education can be made known and be
addressed in a linear fashion.
Subject matter is the focus
2) Nontechnical Approach (Holistic)
stresses subjectivity, personal, aesthetic and
transactional.
They stress the learner not the content through
activity oriented approaches to teaching and
learning.
They stress that not all ends of education can
be known nor need to be known in all cases.
The learner is the focus
10. The Tyler Model: Four Basic
Principles
There are four major stages in the process of
curriculum development.
1. Goals and objectives,
2. Content ,
3. Learning experiences and
4. Evaluation
These four stages are derived from the four
questions raised by Ralph Tyler in 1949, one
of the pioneers of curriculum engineering and
techniques.
11. The Tyler Model
In his book, Basic Principles of
Curriculum and Instruction (Tyler
1949), Tyler suggested four
fundamental questions.
1. What educational purposes
should the school seek to attain?
2. What educational experiences
can be provided that are likely to
attain these questions?
12. 3. How can these educational
experiences be effectively organized?
4. How can we determine whether
these purposes are being attained?
These questions may be formulated
into a
simple “four” Step process by which a
curriculum is planned and developed.
13. He suggests that curriculum
planners should gather data from
three sources-
1. Subject matter
2. Learner
3. Society
14. The learner
The child’s needs and interests must
be related to psychology of the child-
appropriate objectives must coincide
with appropriate age levels of the
learner
The objectives must be developed
from identified needs, behavoural
changes and interests of learners
Studies of learners must be conducted
to identify the above issues
15. The society
Challenges and needs of society can
guide the development of purposes
which provide the knowledge, skills
and attitudes for the learner
An analysis of philosophy which is part
of the culture of the nation will provide
the objectives of the curriculum e.g
Kagisano in Botswana. “Ujamaa
socialism” in Tanzania, etc.
16. Subject matter
The subject specialists are
responsible for providing purposes
which are specialised
They don’t seek to produce specialist
but with the knowledge of their subject
areas they provide relevant content for
the learners
17. Philosophical and psychological
screens
Step 1: identification of objectives
Screening is done to remove unimportant and
contradictory factors
The philosophy should define what is
expected to be a good life. Eg values which
foster democratic environment
Question used to screen these values may
be;
-The acceptance of every human being
regardless of their status or sex
- An opportunity for everyone’s participation
in activities of society
18. Psychology as a screen
The age of the child and the way they
behave will determine the appropriate
purposes for each age group.
Western theories of learning are used
to determine the purposes in African
curriculum development.
19. STEP 2: SELECTION OF LEARNING
EXPERIENCES
There should be learning experiences- the
interaction between the learner and the external
conditions in the environment
These influence the attainment of goals of
education.
They influence leaners to;
- Develop positive attitudes towards self
and others
- Acquire knowledge useful in problem
solving
- Develop skills useful for oneself and the
society
20. STEP 3.
ORGANIZATION OF LEARNING
EXPERIENCES
- be made systematic such that ideas,
concepts, values and skills are tied together
and link as content within subjects
- Can be shown through the timetable
- Concepts can be organised in a particular
subject, i.e facts, principles and skills etc.
- Showing continuity, integration and
sequence
21. STEP 4. EVALUATION
Check effectiveness of the program,
whether the purposes have been attained
Whether learning experiences produced
intended results.
22. Linear model
Some curriculum experts like Tyler say that
the steps are followed in a sequence or a
straight line.
This model that assumes that curriculum
decision making follows a straight line is
called linear model
23. Hilda Taba's Linear Model
1. Diagnosis of needs-identifying
needs of student
The teacher (curriculum designer)
starts the process by identifying
the needs of the students for
whom the curriculum is to be
planned
24. 2. Formulation of objectives-
Specifying objectives to be accomplished
After the teacher has identified the needs
that require attention, he or she specifies
objectives to be accomplished.
25. 3. Selection of content
Determining the content, its validity and
significance
The objectives selected or created
suggest the subject matter or content of
the curriculum.
Not only should objectives and content
match but also the validity and
significance of the content chosen needs
to be determined.
26. 4. Organization of content
Sequencing content considering maturity of
learners, their achievement and interests
A teacher can not just select content, but
must organize it in some type of sequence,
taking into consideration the maturity of the
learners, their academic achievement, and
their interests.
27. 5.Selection of learning experiences
Selection of instructional methods that
involve students with the content
Content must be presented to pupils and
pupils must engage the content. At this
point, the teacher select instructional
methods that will involve students with
the content.
28. 6.Organization of learning activities
Consider the students when choosing
activities
Just as content must be sequenced
and organized, so must the learning
activities. Often the sequence of the
learning activities is determined by the
content. But the teacher needs to keep
in mind the particular students whom
he or she will be teaching.
29. 7.Evaluation and means of evaluation
Determining which objectives have been
accomplished
The curriculum planner must determine
just what objectives have been
accomplished. Evaluation procedures
need to be considered by the students and
teachers.
30. Grass-roots approach
In Taba’s book, Curriculum development:
Theory and Practice (1962), she argued that
there was a definite order to creating the
curriculum.
Where Taba differed from Tyler was that she
believed that those who teach the
curriculum, the teachers, should participate
in developing it.
She advocated what has been called the
grass-roots approach, a model whose steps
or stages are similar to Tyler’s.
31. Although Tyler did not advocate that his model
only be employed by persons in the central office,
educators during the early days of curriculum
making thought that the central authorities really
had the knowledge thereby creating “top down”
curricula.
Taba believed that teachers should begin the
process by creating specific teaching-learning
units for their students.
More specifically, she advocated that teachers
take an inductive approach to curriculum
development
—starting with specifics and building to a general
design—as opposed to the more traditional
deductive approach—starting with the general
design and working toward the specifics
32. The Wheeler Model
Other scholars argue that curriculum
decision making is not a simple linear
process that necessarily starts with aims.
One of them is Wheeler (1978) who
believes that curriculum decision making
can start from any point and can come back
to any of the points e.g. like a cycle
33. The Wheeler Model
While Tyler’s model suggested
that evaluation serves purely to
ascertain the extent to which the
objectives stated had been
achieved, critics argued that
evaluation need not be a terminal
stage, but should take place at
every stage.
For this Wheeler has converted
Tyler’s original ideas into cyclic
form.
35. The Hunkins’s Decision making
Model
Curriculum conceptualisation
-various concepts of the curriculum are
identified and examined- considering
social and cultural views.
-conversing with various players to
interprete the discourses generated in
the field
Diagnosis
-translating needs into causes( what
causes some needs)
-generating goals and objectives from the
needs-these serve as guidelines or as
statements of expected learning
36. • Content selection
-The what of the curriculum, foundation of
the curriculum comprising of facts,
concepts, principles, theories and
generalizations
- Refers to cognitive porcesses,
procedures students learn to use to
applytheir knowledge and skills and to
communicate to others
• Experience selection
-deals with instruction- how content should
be delivered
-what teaching methods to be employed,
what activities to make learning effective
and enjoyable
37. • Implementation
-1. initial piloting
-2. final diffusion of the tested program
• Evaluation
- So as to decide to continue, modify
or discontinue the program
• Maintenance
-educating new staff, ensuring supply
of materials, supervisors assisting
teachers
38. Stage 1
Philosophical
Questions (cultural
variables)
e.g. aims of education
worthwhile knowledge
Stage 2
(Cultural variables) e.g.
the kind of society we
have/we want Sociology
Questions
Stage 3
Selection from
Culture
Stage 4
Psychological Questions and
theories e.g. of learning,
instruction, development etc.
Stage 5
Curriculum Organized in
stages, sequences
39. Identify the main concepts in each of these
models.
Itemize the similarities and differences
among them.
Can you think of other models of curriculum
development? Refer to the work of Tyler and
Taba
What are the major points to consider when
selecting objectives in curriculum
development? Explain them in relation to
your country schools’ curriculum
development
40. Walker’s Deliberative
Approach
What is Deliberation?
Perreira(1984) emphasizes the
purpose of deliberation as;
“ essentially a systematic method for
formulating and intertaining an
adequate variety of alternatives,
alternative perceptions, alternative
problems and alternative solutions”(p.
5)
41. Walker’s Deliberative
Approach
He studied what people actually do
when they study the curriculum
Used term “naturalistic” because he
described how curriculum was actually
developed rather than how it should
be developed
42. Curriculum Planning has
Three Parts
Platform – approach the task with our
ideas, convictions, and beliefs.
Everyone gets an opportunity to talk,
discuss, and even argue
The preliminary step is to get
everyone to join in , to talk, discuss
and argue about what the platform
should be.
The platform provides a basis for the
future discussions
43. Deliberation
Deliberation – Move away from
individual beliefs to assessing possible
points of action- Feelings can run high
and the process can seem chaotic
This is the practical stage- they
identify possible problems about the
situation in which the curriculum is to
be implemented and how it could
mitigate problems
44. Deliberation cont…
The process includes;
Identifying relevant facts, generating
alternative courses of action in light of
precedents
Considering the costs and
consequences of all alternatives
45. Choosing the most defensible
alternatives
The emphasis is to clear away clashes
between alternatives
46. Design
Design – Group achieves consensus so
that a course of action is accepted
During this phase curriculum
development contains both implicit and
explicit considerations
Decisions may still be influenced
bypersonal preferences
The design phase is the creation of the
curriculum, which includes; specific
subjects, instructions,, teaching materials
the group believes advisable
48. CONCLUSION
Walker’s approch is of considerable
value to teachers
- The assertions of personal beliefs
-The use of deliberation in identifying
problematic situations and weighing
alternative solutions
The interplay of explicit and implicit in
designing a curriculum
All the above could help in identifying
pitfalls and frustrations in curriculum
development
