1. Running
head:
FERMENTATION
PROCESSES
OF
FOOD
PRODUCTS
Fermentation
Processes
of
Food
Products:
Cheese,
Alcohol,
and
Bread
Kyle
Lenane
John
Schnettler
FTEC
447
-­‐
Food
Chemistry
Colorado
State
University

2. FERMENTATION
OF
FOOD
PRODUCTS
The
production
of
cheese,
alcohol,
and
bread
by
the
process
of
fermentation
has
occurred
for
centuries,
far
before
there
was
any
knowledge
of
the
existence
of
microorganisms,
metabolic
pathways,
or
the
relatively
complex
biochemical
properties
of
foods
and
beverages.
However,
tremendous
advances
in
food
science,
chemistry,
and
microbiology
have
led
to
a
deeper
understanding
of
what
fermentation
is,
how
it
functions,
and
how
it
affects
food
quality
in
terms
of
sensory
analysis
and
shelf
life.
While
the
fermentation
of
cheese,
alcohol,
and
bread
share
many
similarities,
they
also
possess
a
variety
of
qualities
that
differentiate
themselves
from
one
another.
Therefore,
the
purpose
of
this
paper
is
not
only
to
describe
the
fermentation
processes
of
cheese,
alcohol,
and
bread,
but
also
to
highlight
the
similarities
and
differences
that
exist
between
each
of
these
food
products.
But
before
putting
forth
this
description
and
analysis
of
each
food
product,
it
is
worthwhile
to
first
understand
what
fermentation
is,
why
it
occurs,
and
its
various
components.
Fermentation
is
defined
as
a
group
of
chemical
reactions
prompted
by
microorganisms
that
degrade
complex
carbohydrates
into
simpler
substances
such
as
gases,
acids,
and/or
alcohol
(Weir
2015).
Therefore,
fermentation
is
a
metabolic
process
that
occurs
when
respiration,
a
far
more
favorable
metabolic
pathway,
is
impeded
and
ultimately
unable
to
occur.
Respiration
is
a
metabolic
pathway
that
uses
glycolysis
(substrate
level
phosphorylation),
the
TCA
cycle,
and
electron
transport
chain
to
generate
a
net
total
36
ATP
(2015).
This
process
can
occur
either
aerobically
or
anaerobically
depending
on
what
the
final
acceptor
is
in
the
electron
transport
chain
(oxygen
is
aerobic,
any
acceptor
other
than
oxygen
is
anaerobic).
When
oxygen
isn’t
available
to
facultative
anaerobic
microorganisms,
they
revert
to
the
substrate-­‐level
phosphorylation

3. FERMENTATION
OF
FOOD
PRODUCTS
fermentation
pathway
in
order
to
produce
energy
from
glycolysis,
more
NAD+
for
glycolysis,
and/or
as
a
survival
mechanism
to
outcompete
other
organisms
in
the
presence
of
high
glucose
concentrations
(2015).
The
two
primary
classifications
of
fermentation
include
the
homofermentative
and
heterofermentative
pathways.
The
homofermentative,
Embden-­‐Meyerhof
pathway
functions
by
the
use
of
the
enzyme
aldolase,
which
utilizes
fructose,
glucose,
and
galactose
to
produce
solely
lactic
acid
(2015).
On
the
other
hand,
the
heterofermentative,
Phosphotekalose
pathway
functions
through
the
use
of
the
enzyme
phosphoketalase,
which
utilizes
simple
carbohydrates
to
produce
not
only
lactic
acid,
but
also
ethanol,
carbon
dioxide,
and
acetic
acid
(2015).
With
this
basic
understanding
of
the
fermentation
metabolic
pathway
and
its
mechanisms,
cheese,
alcohol,
and
bread
fermentation
are
more
easily
comprehensible.
The
first
major
food
product
fermentation
to
be
discussed
is
the
fermentation
of
cheese.
Cheese
fermentation
is
practiced
all
around
the
world
but
varies
from
culture
to
culture
in
terms
of
the
substrates
that
are
used
and
the
cultures
fermenting
them.
The
primary
substrate
that
we
as
Americans
associate
with
cheese
fermentation
is
milk,
and
for
this
paper
milk
cheese
will
be
the
topic.
Cheeses
are
generally
described
as
hard
of
soft
depending
on
their
consistency.
Hard
cheeses
are
often
associated
with
bacterial
fermentations
and
include
bacterial
species
such
as,
Lactobacillus
helveticus,
Lactobacillus
Delbruckeii,
Streptococcus
thermophilus,
as
well
as
other
lactic
acid
bacteria
(Weir
2015).
Soft
cheeses
are
associated
more
with
fungi
as
the
primary
fermentors
including,
Penicillium
camemberti,
Penicillium
roqueforti,
Debramyces
hansenii,
as
well
as
others
(2015).

4. FERMENTATION
OF
FOOD
PRODUCTS
Milk
consists
of
water,
minerals,
proteins,
lipids
and
carbohydrates
(Milk
Facts
2015).
The
most
important
mineral
to
consider
in
cheese
fermentation
is
calcium
because
of
its
role
in
protein
coagulation,
a
topic
that
will
be
covered
in
more
detain
later.
Bovine
milk
contains
approximately
400
different
fatty
acids
but
the
vast
majority
of
them
(65%)
are
saturated,
leaving
30%
monounsaturated,
and
5%
polyunsaturated.
According
to
research
conducted
by
Helena
Lindmark
Månsson
pertaining
to
fatty
acids
in
bovine
milk
fat,
“The
milk
fatty
acids
are
derived
almost
equally
from
two
sources,
the
feed
and
the
microbial
activity
in
the
rumen
of
the
cow
and
the
lipids
in
bovine
milk
are
mainly
present
in
globules
as
an
oil-­‐in-­‐water
emulsion”
(Månsson
15).
In
cheese
fermentation
a
process
called
lipolysis
occurs.
Lipolysis
is
the
process
of
fatty
acid
degradation
when
the
enzyme
lipase
separates
the
fatty
acids
from
the
glycerol
backbone
(Weir
2015).
The
lipase
enzyme
can
be
present
in
the
substrate
or
it
can
come
from
an
outside
source
like
an
added
culture
or
the
surrounding
environment
(2015).
This
process
can
contribute
to
the
sensory
properties
of
the
product,
most
specifically
flavor
and
aroma.
The
two
major
proteins
found
in
bovine
milk
are
casein
making
up
80%
of
the
total
protein
and
whey
comprising
the
remaining
20%
(Weir
2015).
Casein
is
especially
important
because
it
is
responsible
for
the
curd
formation
during
the
cheese
making
process;
casein
sub
micelles
consist
of
alpha,
beta
and
kappa
regions.
Calcium
phosphate
bonds
form
between
the
alpha
and
beta
regions
of
different
sub
micelles
holding
them
together
and
creating
a
larger
micelle.
As
micelles
form,
the
kappa
region
which
has
large
triglycerides
attached
to
them,
are
arranged
on
the
outside
of
the
casein
micelle
(Stone,2015).
Much
like
lipolysis
of
fats
proteins
also
experience
a
similar
phenomenon
called
proteolysis.
Proteolysis
refers
to,
“the
process
in
which
a
protein
is
broken
down

5. FERMENTATION
OF
FOOD
PRODUCTS
partially,
into
peptides,
or
completely,
into
amino
acids,
by
proteolytic
enzymes,
present
in
bacteria
and
in
plants
but
most
abundant
in
animals”
(Fox
2015).
This
process
is
incredibly
important
in
texture,
flavor
and
aroma
development
in
cheese,
and
in
the
coagulation
of
the
protein
as
well.
The
final
compound
present
in
bovine
milk
is
carbohydrates.
The
primary
substrate
in
cheese
fermentation
is
lactose
which
is
a
disaccharide
consisting
of
the
monosaccharide’s
glucose
and
galactose
(Weir,
2015).
Cheese
fermentation
produces
only
lactate
making
it
a
homofermentative
lactic
acid
fermentation.
Lactic
acid
fermentation
starts
with
glycolysis
where
the
lactose
(glucose
and
galactose)
is
broken
down
into
pyruvate
in
order
to
produce
2
ATP.
After
the
glycolysis
step
the
pyruvate
is
then
broken
down
into
lactate
the
terminal
product
of
lactic
acid
fermentation.
During
this
final
step
of
lactic
acid
fermentation
NAD+
is
produced
which
is
then
recycled
again
for
glycolysis.
Glycolysis
is
the
only
step
of
the
fermentation
process
that
produces
ATP,
and
although
it
is
not
as
efficient
as
respiration,
it
provides
the
organisms
capable
of
fermentation
a
huge
evolutionary
advantage
over
others.
(Todar,
2015)
Before
humanity
had
discovered
microorganisms,
fermentation
of
foods
was
carried
out
to
increase
the
microbiological
stability
of
food
allowing
it
to
last
longer
than
the
raw
substrate.
Cheeses
ability
to
store
for
long
periods
varies
on
the
type
of
cheese,
generally
the
harder
cheeses
are
much
more
shelf
stable
(Musseti
2015).
During
the
lactic
acid
fermentation
the
pH
of
cheese
drops
significantly
making
it
very
hard
for
certain
organisms
to
grow
especially
human
pathogens.
Another
byproduct
of
cheese
fermentation
is
bacteriocins,
or
antimicrobial
products
produced
by
the
fermenting
organism
designed
to
retard
the
growth
of
competing
microorganisms
(Weir
2015).
Some
of
the
hard
cheeses
are

6. FERMENTATION
OF
FOOD
PRODUCTS
aged
for
a
number
of
years,
a
process
that
lowers
the
water
activity
down
to
levels
that
make
it
very
hard
for
most
microorganisms
to
grow
(Musseti
2015).
Finally,
other
measures
can
be
taken
in
order
to
increase
the
shelf
life
of
cheese
like
storage
at
refrigerator
temperatures
or
the
use
of
modified
atmosphere
packaging
and,
like
other
ferments,
exposure
to
temperature,
humidity,
light,
and
oxygen.
Unlike
cheese
fermentation,
the
fermentation
of
ethanol
is
heterofermentative
and
a
vital
step
in
the
production
of
alcoholic
beverages
such
as
wine
and
beer.
In
ethanol
fermentation,
a
single
glucose
molecule
is
first
broken
down
into
two
pyruvate
molecules
during
glycolysis,
which
is
broken
down
into
two
acetaldehyde
intermediates
and
two
carbon
dioxide
molecules
(Weir
2015).
Finally,
two
ethanol
molecules
are
produced
after
nicotinamide
adenine
dinucleotide
(NADH)
is
reduced
to
NAD+
to
be
used
in
substrate-­‐
level
phosphorylation
(2015).
Therefore,
as
mentioned
earlier,
facultative
anaerobic
microorganisms
will
choose
this
pathway
as
a
means
of
energy
production
(2
ATP)
via
glycolysis
when
oxygen
isn’t
available
to
them.
Despite
their
many
differences,
wine
and
beer
are
similar
in
that
both
are
generally
fermented
by
the
facultative
anaerobic
yeast
culture,
Saccharomyces
cerevisiae.
However,
exceptions
to
this
generalization
exist
in
both
wine
and
beer.
For
example,
Saccharomyces
bayanus
is
a
yeast
culture
that
can
tolerate
higher
alcohol
levels
(alcohol
is
toxic
to
microorganisms)
and
therefore
is
used
in
highly
alcoholic
fortified
wines
(Pambianchi
2000).
In
addition,
lactic
acid
bacteria
are
used
in
wine
to
facilitate
malolactic
fermentation,
an
important
wine
production
process
that
will
be
discussed
further
in
depth
soon.
On
the
other
hand,
lactic
acid
bacteria
(Lactobacillus
and
Pediococcus
species)
and
Brettanomyces
species
commonly
considered
spoilage
organisms
are
intentionally
utilized
in
ethanol
fermentation
to
produce
wild,
sour
ales.

7. FERMENTATION
OF
FOOD
PRODUCTS
Despite
some
of
wine
and
beer’s
similarities
pertaining
to
their
general
fermentation
mechanism
and
to
the
microorganism
used
in
their
fermentations,
they
also
possess
many
differences
in
terms
of
fermentation
and
production.
Wine
incorporates
the
fermentation
of
simple
sugars
derived
from
grapes
in
order
to
produce
an
alcoholic
beverage.
Due
to
the
fact
that
simple
sugars
including
the
monosaccharides
glucose
and
fructose
are
naturally
present
within
the
fruit
and
readily
available,
there
is
no
need
for
a
saccharification
step
(Weir
2015).
Wine
is
typically
categorized
most
broadly
as
either
red
or
white.
Red
wines
include
the
fermentation
of
the
grape
where
the
skin
isn’t
separated
from
the
pulp
whereas
the
white
wine
fermentation
process
does
not
occur
with
the
skins
present
(West
2015).
When
the
skins
are
fermented
with
the
pulp,
anthocyanin
pigments
within
the
skin
turn
the
juice
red
and
other
polyphenolic
tannins
are
produced
contributing
desirable
sensory
components
such
as
astringency
as
well
as
aid
in
the
aging
process
of
wine
(2015).
The
must
that
is
formed
by
the
pressing
of
juice
contains
approximately
70-­‐85%
water,
10%
fructose,
10%
glucose,
and
a
variety
of
other
organic
compounds
such
as
fatty
acids,
aldehydes,
and
amino
acids
(which
contribute
free
amino
nitrogen
influencing
healthier
yeast)
(Weir
2015).
After
the
primary
ethanol
fermentation
has
occurred,
malolactic
fermentation
is
facilitated
through
the
use
of
lactic
acid
bacteria
converting
harsher
malic
acid
into
a
smoother,
more
palatable
lactic
acid
(2015).
Diacetyel
is
also
produced
which
can
function
as
either
an
off
flavor
or
a
desirable
flavor
(such
as
in
chardonnays)
depending
on
the
wine
style
and
flavor
intent
(2015).
Overall,
wine
and
its
fermentation
has
a
complex
biochemistry
that
goes
far
beyond
the
scope
of
this
paper.

8. FERMENTATION
OF
FOOD
PRODUCTS
Unlike
wine,
beer
incorporates
the
fermentation
of
malted
barley
and
adjuncts,
which
are
made
up
of
starch
granules
containing
amylose
(linear
α-­‐(1,4)
glycosidic
bonds)
and
amylopectin
(branched
α-­‐(1,4),
α-­‐(1,6)
glycosidic
bonds)
(Briggs
et
al.
2004).
These
complex
polysaccharides
are
gelatinized
and
saccharified
into
sucrose,
fructose,
glucose,
maltose,
and
maltotriose
for
fermentation
(2004).
Gelatinization
is
the
process
of
heat
and
water
disrupting
intermolecular
bonds
freeing
starch
granule
bonding
sites
causing
hydration,
swelling
and
eventual
bursting
of
starch
granules
(2004).
This
process
makes
starch
granules
more
readily
available
for
saccharification.
Saccharification
is
the
process
of
polysaccharide
hydrolysis
into
simpler
carbohydrates
(2004).
In
brewing,
this
is
achieved
by
mashing
grains
at
optimal
pH
and
temperature
encouraging
amylase
enzyme
activity.
Again,
like
wine,
beer
fermentation
and
production
also
has
an
extensive
amount
of
biochemical
properties
and
processes.
Ethanol
fermentation
as
well
as
other
processes
in
the
production
of
wine
and
beer
work
together
to
make
these
alcoholic
beverages
relatively
shelf-­‐stable
and
enhance
sensory
components
(appearance,
aroma,
flavor,
texture,
etc.)
as
well.
As
mentioned
earlier,
ethanol
is
toxic
to
microorganisms
and
therefore
wine
and
beer
are
microbiologically
stable
based
on
their
inhibition
of
spoilers.
Fermentation
also
acidifies
these
beverages
thus
creating
an
inhospitable
environment
for
microorganisms
to
survive.
In
addition,
both
wine
and
beer
can
be
produced
for
either
relatively
short-­‐term
consumption
or
long-­‐term
aging
based
on
the
style
and
production
method.
Antioxidants
in
wine
donate
electrons
to
free
radicals
preventing
harmful
oxidation
of
wine
during
the
aging
process
(West
2015).
Hops
in
beer
are
also
known
to
have
antimicrobial
properties
thus
extending
its
shelf
life.
Finally,
ethanol
fermentation
not
only
gives
wine
and
beer
an

9. FERMENTATION
OF
FOOD
PRODUCTS
alcoholic
content,
but
the
reaction
also
produces
a
number
of
desirable
and
undesirable
flavor
characteristics
such
as
acetaldehyde,
diacetyel,
esters,
and
phenols.
Bread
is
another
staple
food
not
only
in
the
United
States
but
around
the
whole
world.
Bread
fermentation
is
a
heterofermentative
process
although
sourdough
breads
may
also
contain
homofermentative
microorganisms.
During
bread
fermentation
glucose
or
other
simple
carbohydrates
are
broken
down
into
pyruvate
via
glycolysis
in
order
to
produce
2
ATP.
Next
the
pyruvate
is
then
converted
into
acetylaldehyde,
this
is
the
step
of
fermentation
responsible
for
carbon
dioxide
production
in
bread.
Carbon
dioxide
is
retained
in
the
breads
protein
structure
leavening
it,
the
primary
reason
for
bread
fermentation
(Katz
2012).
The
final
step
of
the
bread
fermentation
process
is
the
conversion
of
acetylaldehyde
into
ethanol,
an
end
product
of
heterofermentation.
Much
like
the
fermentations
of
cheese
and
alcohol,
bread
fermentation
produces
NAD+
and
essential
input
for
glycolysis
and
therefore
ATP
production
(Weir
2015).
Bread
is
often
categorized
in
sour
and
non-­‐sour
dough
varieties.
Sour
dough
bread
contains
lactic
acid
bacteria
that
are
homofermentative
and
produce
lactate
as
the
terminal
product
of
fermentation,
which
we
perceive
as
sour.
Some
of
the
genera
of
bacteria
in
bread
fermentation
include
Lactobacillus,
Pediococcus,
Lueconostoc,
and
Weisella
(Wink
2015).
It
is
also
important
to
note
that
there
are
wild
yeasts
present
in
sourdough
production
that
are
heterofermentative
and
capable
of
producing
carbon
dioxide
that
causes
the
bread
to
rise
during
fermentation
(Katz,
2012).
Aside
from
carbon
dioxide
leavening
the
bread
sourdough
fermentation
is
incredibly
important
in
flavor
development.
The
ethanol
produced
in
the
heterofermentative
fermentation
pathway
is
volatized
off
during
the
baking
process.

10. FERMENTATION
OF
FOOD
PRODUCTS
Unlike
sourdough
bread
that
can
contain
a
plethora
of
different
organisms,
non-­‐sour
varietals
generally
only
contain
a
single
culture,
typically
Saccharomyces
cerevisiae.
Saccharomyces
is
a
heterofermentative
organism
that
produces
ethanol,
carbon
dioxide
as
the
main
products
of
fermentation,
but
can
also
produce
other
compounds
like
hydrogen
peroxide
and
diacetyl
(Corsetti,
2007).
Because
the
lactic
acid
bacteria
responsible
for
sourdough
bread
production
occur
naturally
on
the
grains
used
for
non-­‐sour
breads
the
flour
is
often
irradiated
in
order
to
kill
the
bacterial
species.
During
the
fermentation
process
of
bread
the
protein
structure
is
changed
leading
to
flavor
development
in
the
product.
The
major
compounds
in
bread
include
proteins
and
carbohydrates.
There
are
both
complex
and
simple
carbohydrates
within
the
flour
used
in
bread.
Bread
fermentation
consists
of
a
saccharification
step
where
the
complex
carbohydrates
are
broken
down
into
simple
sugars
by
the
action
of
the
enzyme
amylase.
The
complex
carbohydrates
within
bread
include
amylose,
amylopectin,
and
maltodextrin
(Carbohydrates
2015).
When
these
large
complexes
are
broken
down
they
monosaccharides
like
glucose
and
fructose,
and
disaccharides
like
maltose
and
sucrose
(2015).
The
two
main
proteins
in
bread
production
are
gliadin
and
glutenin.
According
to
CookingScienceGuy.com,
“The
process
of
wetting
the
proteins
is
called
hydration.
As
water
and
flour
are
mixed
the
hydrated
proteins
are
brought
together
and
begin
to
interact.
They
literally
begin
to
stick
to
each
other
through
the
formation
of
chemical
bonds”(Explaining
Gluten
2015).
When
these
two
proteins
interact
in
this
manor
they
create
a
protein
complex
that
traps
the
carbon
dioxide
produced
in
the
fermentation
process
allowing
the
bread
to
rise
and
develop
the
thin
light
and
airy
texture
desired
in
the
product.

11. FERMENTATION
OF
FOOD
PRODUCTS
Similar
to
the
boiling
of
wort
step
in
the
production
of
beer,
baking
incorporate
the
non-­‐enzymatic
browning
processes
of
Malliard
reactions
and
caramelization.
Malliard
reactions
involve
the
reaction
of
amine
groups
and
reducing
sugars
in
the
presence
of
water
and
high
temperatures
yielding
savory
(umami),
meaty,
onion,
chocolate,
and
malty
flavors
(Weir
2015).
On
the
other
hand,
once
baking
reaches
even
higher
temperatures
(roughly
337°F),
caramelization
occurs
without
the
reaction
of
amines
and
reducing
sugars
(2015).
Caramelization
involves
pyrolysis,
which
is
the
breakdown
and
of
sugars
(from
sucrose
to
glucose
and
fructose)
at
high
temperatures
yielding
caramel,
nutty,
and
toasty
flavors
as
well
as
subsequent
browning
(2015).
Overall,
these
non-­‐enzymatic
processes
are
vital
in
producing
the
flavors
and
aromas
characteristic
of
bread.
Of
all
the
fermented
foods
and
beverages
discussed,
bread
likely
has
the
lowest
shelf
stability.
Although
fermentation
slightly
extends
shelf
life
by
lowering
the
pH
based
on
acid
production,
the
modification
of
gluten,
and
the
saccharification
of
flour
with
amylase
enzymes,
ethanol
becomes
volatilized
during
the
baking
process
and
live
and
active
cultures
die
off
at
such
high
temperatures.
Therefore,
neither
of
these
components
play
a
role
in
microbiological
stability
as
they
do
in
other
ferments.
In
addition,
water
activity
in
bread
is
very
high
at
.95aw
compared
to
pure
waters
1.0aw
(Corsetti
2007).
This
available
water
is
an
incredibly
hospitable
environment
to
harmful
spoilage
microorganisms.
In
addition,
similar
to
cheese
fermentation,
Lactobacillus
found
in
sourdough
fermentation
often
contain
bacteriocins
that
help
retard
the
growth
of
competing
microbes
(Weir
2015).
Overall,
fermented
bread
isn’t
particularly
shelf
stable
compared
to
cheese
and
alcohol,
however,
shelf
life
can
also
be
extended
through
the
control
of
temperature,
humidity,
and
light
and
oxygen
exposure.

12. FERMENTATION
OF
FOOD
PRODUCTS
The
ability
for
microorganisms
to
undergo
the
fermentation
pathway
provides
a
major
evolutionary
advantage
over
other
organisms
that
cannot,
and
learning
how
to
control
fermentation
has
provided
humans
major
advantages
in
food
storage
and
safety.
The
fermentation
processes
are
similar
between
the
three
products
but
contain
key
differences.
Both
alcohol
and
bread
undergo
heterofermentative
fermentations
producing
multiple
end
products
that
benefit
their
product’s
sensory
attributes
and
physical,
biochemical
properties.
The
heterofermentative
process
utilizes
the
Phosphoketalose
Pathway
in
order
to
breakdown
their
substrates
with
the
action
of
the
enzyme
phosphoketalase.
In
cheeses
homofermentation
process
the
Embden-­‐Meyerhof
Pathway
breaks
down
the
diasaccharide
lactose
using
the
aldolase
enzyme.
In
terms
of
product
stability
bread
is
far
less
shelf
stable
than
alcohol
and
cheese
as
mentioned
previously.
This
can
be
attributed
to
the
lack
of
ethanol
and
live
active
cultures
that
are
volatized
and
killed
off,
respectively,
during
the
baking
process,
and
the
fact
that
bread
has
a
high
water
activity
making
it
easy
for
a
broad
range
of
microorganisms
to
grow.
The
ethanol
content
and
low
pH
of
alcoholic
beverages
prevents
the
majority
of
spoilage
organisms
from
growing.
In
cheese
a
low
pH
and
production
of
bacteriocins
create
a
barrier
to
spoilage
organism
growth.
Differences
in
substrates
provide
different
metabolic
needs
for
their
respective
organisms
and
therefore
create
different
and
unique
products,
and
although
these
products
seem
vastly
different
from
culture
to
culture
and
product
to
product,
the
general
fermentation
mechanism
is
universal.

13. FERMENTATION
OF
FOOD
PRODUCTS
Works
Cited
Briggs
E.
Dennis,
Boulton
A.
Chris,
Brookes
A.
Peter,
Stevens
Roger.
(2004).
“Brewing,
Science
and
Practice.”
Woodhead
Publishing
in
Food
Science
and
Technology.
Text.
Corsetti,
Aldo.
(2007).
Lactobacilli
in
sourdough
fermentation.
Food
Research
International,
40(5).
Retrieved
from
<http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0963996906001979>
Explaining
Gluten.
(2015).
Cooking
Science
Guy.
Web.
Fox,
P.f.
"Proteolysis
During
Cheese
Manufacture
and
Ripening."
Journal
of
Dairy
Science.
Katz,
Sandor
Ellix,
and
Michael
Pollan.
The
Art
of
Fermentation:
An
In-­‐depth
Exploration
of
Essential
Concepts
and
Processes
from
around
the
World.
N.p.:
n.p.,
n.d.
Print.
Månsson,
Helena
Lindmark.
“Fatty
Acids
in
Bovine
Milk
Fat.”
Food
&
Nutrition
Research
52
(2008)
Musetti,
James.
“Microbiology
of
Cheese
Fermentation.”
Colorado
State
University.
Gifford
Building,
Fort
Collins,
CO.
24
Feb.
2015.
Guest
Lecture.
Pambianchi,
Daniel.
(2000).
“The
Strain
Game.”
Wine
Maker.
Phillips,
Sarrah.
"Yeast
Fermentation
|
CraftyBaking
|
Formerly
Baking911."
CraftyBaking.
N.p.,
n.d.
Web.
08
Apr.
2015.
Todar,
Kenneth.
"Lactic
Acid
Bacteria."
Lactic
Acid
Bacteria.
N.p.,
n.d.
Web.
08
Apr.
2015.
Weir,
Tiffany.
“Alcohol
Fermentation.”
Colorado
State
University.
Gifford
Building,
Fort
Collins,
CO.
29
Jan
2015.
Lecture.

14. FERMENTATION
OF
FOOD
PRODUCTS
Weir,
Tiffany.
“Fermented
Foods
of
the
Orient”
Colorado
State
University.
Gifford
Building,
Fort
Collins,
CO.
12
Mar
2015.
Lecture.
West,
Ron.
“Yeasts
in
Flavor
Chemistry
of
Wine
Fermentation.”
Varaison
Vineyards,
Colorado
State
University.
Gifford
Building,
Fort
Collins,
CO.
5
Feb
2015.
Guest
Lecture.
Wink,
Debra.
"Lactic
Acid
Fermentation
in
Sourdough."
The
Fresh
Loaf.
N.p.,
n.d.
Web.
07
Apr.
2015.