Skills Outlook: First results from the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC)

2013
OECD Skills Outlook 2013
First Results from the Survey
of Adult Skills

OECD Skills Outlook 2013
First Results from the Survey
of Adult Skills

Revised version, November 2013
Details of revisions available at:
http://www.oecd.org/about/publishing/Corrigendum-OECD-skills-outlook-2013.pdf
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Please cite this publication as:
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Foreword
OECD Skills Outlook 2013: First Results from the Survey of Adult Skills © OECD 2013 3
It is no exaggeration to use the word “revolution” when talking about how our lives have changed over the past few
decades. Today we rely on information and communication technologies and devices that hadn’t even been imagined
in 1980. The way we live and work has changed profoundly – and so has the set of skills we need to participate fully in
and benefit from our hyper-connected societies and increasingly knowledge-based economies.
Governments need a clear picture not only of how labour markets and economies are changing, but of the extent to
which their citizens are equipping themselves with the skills demanded in the 21st century, since people with low skills
proficiency face a much greater risk of economic disadvantage, a higher likelihood of unemployment, and poor health.
Our new publication series, the OECD Skills Outlook, aims to provide that picture. It will offer an annual overview
of how skills are being developed, activated and used across OECD and partner countries, and highlight the kinds
of education, employment, tax and other social policies that encourage and allow people to make the most of their
potential.
This inaugural edition of the OECD Skills Outlook is devoted to reporting the results of the first round of the Survey of Adult
Skills, a product of the Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC). The survey provides a
rich source of data on adults’ proficiency in literacy, numeracy and problem solving in technology-rich environments – the
key information-processing skills that are invaluable in 21st-century economies – and in various “generic” skills, such as
co-operation, communication, and organising one’s time.
If there is one central message emerging from this new survey, it is that what people know and what they do with what
they know has a major impact on their life chances. The median hourly wage of workers who can make complex
inferences and evaluate subtle truth claims or arguments in written texts is more than 60% higher than for workers who
can, at best, read relatively short texts to locate a single piece of information. Those with low literacy skills are also more
than twice as likely to be unemployed. The survey also shows that how literacy skills are distributed across a population
has significant implications on how economic and social outcomes are distributed within the society. If large proportions
of adults have low reading and numeracy skills, introducing and disseminating productivity-improving technologies
and work-organisation practices can therefore be hampered. But the impact of skills goes far beyond earnings and
employment. In all countries, individuals with lower proficiency in literacy are more likely than those with better
literacy skills to report poor health, to believe that they have little impact on political processes, and not to participate in
associative or volunteer activities. In most countries, they are also less likely to trust others.
These results, and results from future rounds of the survey, will inform much of the analysis contained in subsequent
editions of the Outlook.The Outlook will build on the extensive body of OECD work in education and training, including
findings from its Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) and its policy reviews of vocational education
and training, and its work on skills, particularly the Skills Strategy – the integrated, cross-government framework developed
by experts across the Organisation to help countries understand more about how to invest in skills in ways that will
transform lives and drive economies. The OECD Skills Outlook will show us where we are, where we need to be, and
how to get there if we want to be fully engaged citizens in a global economy.
Angel Gurría
OECD Secretary-General

Acknowledgements
This Survey of Adult Skills is the outcome of a collaboration among the participating countries, the OECD Secretariat,
the European Commission and an international Consortium led by Educational Testing Service (ETS). The report was
prepared by Ji Eun Chung, Richard Desjardins, Viktoria Kis, Michele Pellizzari, Glenda Quintini, Andreas Schleicher
and William Thorn, with the assistance of Veronica Borg, Vanessa Denis, Anne Fichen and Paulina Granados Zambrano.
Marilyn Achiron, Célia Braga-Schich, Cassandra Davis, Elizabeth Del Bourgo, Marta Encinas-Martin, Lynda Hawe and
Elisabeth Villoutreix provided valuable support in the editorial and production process. Administrative assistance was
provided by Sabrina Leonarduzzi.
The international Consortium was responsible for developing the assessment instruments and preparing the underlying
data under the direction of Irwin Kirsch. Iddo Gal, Stan Jones, Ken Mayhew, Jean-François Rouet and John P. Sabatini led
the expert groups that oversaw the development of the background questionnaire and cognitive assessment instruments.
Cees Glas chaired the project’s Technical Advisory Group.
The development of the project was steered by the PIAAC Board of Participating Countries, chaired by Satya Brink
(Canada) from 2008 to 2010, Dan McGrath (United States) from 2010 to 2013 and Paolo Sestito (Italy) from 2008
to 2013. A full list of the members of the Board together with the names of the National Project Managers, experts,
members of the international Consortium and staff of the OECD Secretariat who have contributed to the project can be
found in Annex C of The Survey of Adult Skills: Reader’s Companion.

Table of Contents
Reader’s guide...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................19
Executive summary......................................................................................................................................................................................................................23
Overview .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................25
Chapter 1 The Skills Needed For The 21st Century.................................................................................................................................45
Major trends influencing the development and use of skills....................................................................................................................................46
• Access to computers and ICTs is widespread and growing.............................................................................................................................46
• ICTs are changing how services are provided and consumed.............................................................................................................................46
• Employment in services and high-skilled occupations is growing....................................................................................................................48
• Imbalances between the supply of, and demand for, skills in labour markets are widespread........................................................52
What the Survey of Adult Skills can tell us...........................................................................................................................................................................52
• The level of skills proficiency among adults..............................................................................................................................................................52
• Which groups in the population have low, medium and high levels of key information-processing skills...............................52
• The supply of, and demand for, key information-processing and generic skills in labour markets................................................52
• How key information-processing skills are developed and maintained over a lifetime.......................................................................53
• How key information-processing skills translate into better economic and social outcomes...........................................................53
Chapter 2 Proficiency In Key Information-Processing Skills Among Working-Age Adults................55
Defining literacy, numeracy and problem solving in technology-rich environments.............................................................................59
Reporting the results..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................60
Proficiency in literacy..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................61
What adults can do at different levels of literacy proficiency.................................................................................................................................63
• Proficiency at Level 5 (scores equal to or higher than 376 points).............................................................................................................66
• Proficiency at Level 4 (scores from 326 points to less than 376 points).........................................................................................................66
• Proficiency below Level 1 (scores below 176 points)...............................................................................................................................................67
• Literacy-related non-response.................................................................................................................................................................................................69
How distributions of proficiency scores compare across countries...................................................................................................................69
• Comparison of average proficiency scores in literacy.........................................................................................................................................69
• Comparison of average proficiency scores for 16-24 year-olds in literacy...................................................................................................71
• Comparison of scores at the 5th, 25th, 75th and 95th percentiles....................................................................................................................73
Proficiency in numeracy.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................75
• What adults can do at different levels of numeracy proficiency..................................................................................................................75
• Proficiency at Level 5 (scores equal to or higher than 376 points)....................................................................................................................78

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8 © OECD 2013 OECD Skills Outlook 2013: First Results from the Survey of Adult Skills
• Literacy-related non-response.................................................................................................................................................................................................79
How distributions of proficiency scores compare across countries...................................................................................................................79
• Comparison of average proficiency scores in numeracy...................................................................................................................................79
• Comparison of average proficiency scores for 16-24 year-olds in numeracy.............................................................................................81
• Comparison of scores at the 5th, 25th, 75th and 95th percentiles....................................................................................................................83
• Correlations between proficiency in literacy and numeracy................................................................................................................................85
Proficiency in problem solving in technology-rich environments........................................................................................................................86
What adults can do at different levels of proficiency in problem solving in technology-rich environments........................87
• The proportion of adults with basic ICT skills...........................................................................................................................................................90
What young adults can do at different levels of proficiency in problem solving in technology-rich environments.........92
The relationship between proficiency in literacy/numeracy and problem solving in technology-rich environments...........94
Comparison of the results from the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC) with those of previous skills surveys...............................96
Summarising performance across countries...........................................................................................................................................................................96
Summary.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................98
Chapter 3 The socio-demographic distribution of key information-processing skills................101
An overview of socio-demographic differences in proficiency...........................................................................................................................102
Differences in skills proficiency related to age...............................................................................................................................................................104
• Proficiency in literacy and numeracy among older and younger age groups..................................................................................106
• Proficiency in problem solving in technology-rich environments among older and younger age groups...................108
Differences in skills proficiency related to gender.......................................................................................................................................................108
• Proficiency in literacy and numeracy among men and women................................................................................................................110
• Proficiency in problem solving in technology-rich environments among men and women.................................................111
Differences in skills proficiency related to socio-economic background.....................................................................................................111
• Proficiency scores in literacy and numeracy among adults from socio-economically disadvantaged and
advantaged backgrounds.....................................................................................................................................................................................................112
• Proficiency levels in problem solving in technology-rich environments among adults from socio-economically
disadvantaged and advantaged backgrounds.............................................................................................................................................................114
• The relationship between socio-economic background and skills proficiency, by age......................................................................117
• Social mobility and literacy proficiency........................................................................................................................................................................117
Differences in skills proficiency related to educational qualifications..........................................................................................................118
• Proficiency in literacy and numeracy among low- and high-educated adults................................................................................120
• Proficiency in problem solving in technology-rich environments among low- and high-educated adults.........................120
• Cumulative disadvantage in key information-processing skills for low-educated adults..................................................................120

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Differences in skills proficiency related to country of origin and language...............................................................................................125
• Proficiency in literacy among native- and foreign-born adults..................................................................................................................126
• Proficiency in literacy among foreign-language immigrants..............................................................................................................................127
• Proficiency in problem solving in technology-rich environments among foreign-language immigrants................................127
• Cumulative disadvantage in key information-processing skills for foreign-language immigrants................................................128
Differences in skills proficiency related to occupation.............................................................................................................................................132
• Proficiency scores in literacy and numeracy among adults in low- and high-skilled occupations...................................133
• Proficiency in problem solving in technology-rich environments among adults in low- and high-skilled
occupations....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................134
• Cumulative disadvantage in key information-processing skills for adults in low- and semi-skilled occupations...............134
Summary....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................137
Chapter 4 How Skills Are Used In The Workplace..................................................................................................................................141
Using skills in the workplace.........................................................................................................................................................................................................142
• Levels of skills use in the workplace............................................................................................................................................................................144
• The distribution of skills use according to workers’ and jobs’ characteristics..................................................................................149
The level of education required for the job.......................................................................................................................................................................168
Exploring mismatch between workers’ skills and job requirements................................................................................................................169
• Constructing better indicators of mismatch using the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC)................................................................169
• How mismatch interacts with proficiency and other individual and job characteristics..........................................................174
• The effect of mismatch on the use of skills and wages.....................................................................................................................................177
Summary....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................181
Chapter 5 Developing And Maintaining Key Information-Processing Skills.................................................187
Overview of education and training and practice-oriented factors linked to developing
and maintaining proficiency.........................................................................................................................................................................................................190
Age, ageing and proficiency.........................................................................................................................................................................................................190
• Observed age differences....................................................................................................................................................................................................191
• Explaining age differences: Cohort and ageing effects....................................................................................................................................195
• Delaying or avoiding age-related declines in information-processing skills.....................................................................................198
Educational attainment and its relationship to proficiency...................................................................................................................................199
• Upper secondary education and skills proficiency............................................................................................................................................199
• Tertiary education and skills proficiency.......................................................................................................................................................................202
• A comparison of educational attainment levels within and across countries..........................................................................................204
• Comparing the development of key skills among different age cohorts that participated in PISA...............................................205
Adult education and training and proficiency....................................................................................................................................................................208
• Readiness to learn and key information-processing skills.............................................................................................................................209
• Participation rates in organised adult learning at the country level and average proficiency...............................................212
Work-related practices that optimise the use and development of skills...........................................................................................................212
• Skills proficiency and the use of skills at work......................................................................................................................................................212
• Occupational structure at the country level and average proficiency...................................................................................................212
Social, cultural and other daily practices that help to develop and maintain skills..............................................................................216
Summary....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................220
Chapter 6 Key Skills And Economic And Social Well-Being...................................................................................................223
Skills proficiency, labour market status and wages......................................................................................................................................................224
• Proficiency and labour market status...........................................................................................................................................................................224
• Proficiency, employment and wages...............................................................................................................................................................................227

Table of contents
• How these relationships are affected by other individual and job characteristics.................................................................................227
• Literacy proficiency, education and labour force participation........................................................................................................................227
• Literacy proficiency, education and employment....................................................................................................................................................231
• Wage returns to proficiency and schooling.................................................................................................................................................................232
Social outcomes of literacy, numeracy and problem solving in technology-rich environments..................................................234
• Trust....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................237
• Volunteering..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................239
• Political efficacy.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................240
• Health...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................241
• The role of education in developing skills and fostering positive outcomes.....................................................................................242
• Country-level socio-economic outcomes and key information-processing skills.........................................................................244
Summary....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................246
Annex A OECD Skills Outlook Tables of results.................................................................................................................................249
Annex B OECD Skills Outlook additional tables.............................................................................................................................407

Table of contents
Boxes
Box 2.1 A context for cross-national comparisons of proficiency..............................................................................................................................56
Box 2.2 Relationship between difficulty of assessment items and proficiency of adults on the literacy, numeracy and problem
solving in technology-rich environments scales...............................................................................................................................................60
Box 2.3 Reading on a screen or on paper: Does it affect proficiency in literacy?.................................................................................................61
Box 2.4 Examples of literacy items.......................................................................................................................................................................................65
Box 2.5 Reading components................................................................................................................................................................................................67
Box 2.6 Comparing results among countries and population subgroups.................................................................................................................69
Box 2.7 Examples of numeracy items..................................................................................................................................................................................77
Box 2.8 Problem solving in technology-rich environments: Beyond using ICT tools to manage information.............................................86
Box 2.9 Examples of problem solving in technology-rich environments.................................................................................................................89
Box 2.10 Adults who “opted out” of taking the computer-based assessment...........................................................................................................91
Box 3.1 Korea: Age-related differences in skills proficiency...................................................................................................................................... 105
Box 3.2 Gender differences in skills proficiency between younger and older adults........................................................................................ 109
Box 3.3 Gender differences in computer use................................................................................................................................................................. 109
Box 3.4 Using odds ratios..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 121
Box 4.1 How to interpret skills-use variables................................................................................................................................................................. 143
Box 5.1 Vocational education and training (VET) for adults in Finland................................................................................................................. 201
Box 5.2 Adult education for adults with low skills....................................................................................................................................................... 210
Box 6.1 The STEP Skills Measurement Study: A skills survey in low- and middle-income countries........................................................... 235
Box 6.2 Alternative mechanisms linking skills and well-being................................................................................................................................. 242
Figures
Figure 0.1 Likelihood of positive social and economic outcomes among highly literate adults...........................................................................27
Figure 0.2 Literacy proficiency among 16-65 year-olds.....................................................................................................................................................29
Figure 0.3 Literacy skills gap between older and younger generations.........................................................................................................................31
Figure 0.4 Distribution of literacy proficiency scores and education in Italy and Japan..........................................................................................33
Figure 0.5 Correlation between labour productivity and the use of reading skills at work.....................................................................................36
Figure 0.6 Correlation between gender gap in wages and in the use of problem-solving skills at work............................................................41
Figure 1.1 Access to computers and the Internet at home.................................................................................................................................................47
Figure 1.2 The growth of e-government...................................................................................................................................................................................47
Figure 1.3 Change in the share of employment, by industrial sectors...........................................................................................................................48
Figure 1.4 Evolution of employment in occupational groups defined by level of education.................................................................................49
Figure 1.5 Change in the demand for skills............................................................................................................................................................................50
Figure 1.6 Evolution of employment in occupational groups defined by level of skills proficiency....................................................................50
Figure 1.7 Organisational change and new technologies..................................................................................................................................................51
Figure a (Box 2.1) GDP per capita, USD...............................................................................................................................................................................................57
Figure b (Box 2.1) Population with tertiary education.......................................................................................................................................................................57
Figure c (Box 2.1) Population without upper secondary education..............................................................................................................................................58
Figure d (Box 2.1) Foreign-born population as a percentage of total population......................................................................................................................58
Figure a (Box 2.3) Percentage of respondents taking different pathways in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC)...............................................................62
Figure 2.1 Literacy proficiency among adults........................................................................................................................................................................63
Figure a (Box 2.5) Relationship between literacy proficiency and performance in reading components.........................................................................68
Figure 2.2a Comparison of average literacy proficiency among adults...........................................................................................................................70
Figure 2.2b Comparison of average literacy proficiency among adults (adjusted).......................................................................................................71

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Figure 2.3a Comparison of average literacy proficiency among young adults..............................................................................................................72
Figure 2.3b Comparison of average literacy proficiency of young adults (adjusted)....................................................................................................73
Figure 2.4 Distribution of literacy proficiency scores..........................................................................................................................................................74
Figure 2.5 Numeracy proficiency among adults...................................................................................................................................................................75
Figure 2.6a Comparison of average numeracy proficiency among adults......................................................................................................................80
Figure 2.6b Comparison of average numeracy proficiency among adults (adjusted)..................................................................................................81
Figure 2.7a Comparison of average numeracy proficiency among young adults.........................................................................................................82
Figure 2.7b Comparison of average numeracy proficiency among young adults (adjusted).....................................................................................83
Figure 2.8 Distribution of numeracy proficiency scores.....................................................................................................................................................84
Figure 2.9 Correlation among key information-processing skills....................................................................................................................................85
Figure 2.10a Proficiency in problem solving in technology-rich environments among adults...................................................................................87
Figure a (Box 2.10) Adults’ range of experience with computers and the computer-based assessment, by socio-demographic profile...................91
Figure 2.10b Proficiency in problem solving in technology-rich environments among young adults......................................................................93
Figure 2.11 Relationship between literacy and problem solving in technology-rich environments.......................................................................94
Figure 2.12 Relationship between numeracy and problem solving in technology-rich environments..................................................................95
Figure 2.13 Summary of proficiency in key information-processing skills......................................................................................................................97
Figure 3.1 (L) Synthesis of socio-demographic differences in literacy proficiency....................................................................................................... 103
Figure 3.2 (L) Age differences in literacy proficiency............................................................................................................................................................. 107
Figure 3.3 (P) Problem-solving proficiency among younger and older adults................................................................................................................ 108
Figure 3.4 (N) Gender differences in numeracy proficiency................................................................................................................................................. 110
Figure 3.5 (P) Problem-solving proficiency among women and men............................................................................................................................... 111
Figure 3.6 (L) Differences in literacy proficiency, by socio-economic background...................................................................................................... 113
Figure 3.7 (P) Problem-solving proficiency among adults with low- and high-educated parents............................................................................ 114
Figure 3.8a (L) Relationship between literacy proficiency and socio-economic background among young adults............................................. 115
Figure 3.8b (L) Relationship between literacy proficiency and socio-economic background among adults.......................................................... 116
Figure 3.8c (L) Relationship between literacy proficiency and impact of socio-economic background on proficiency..................................... 117
Figure 3.9 (L) Differences in literacy proficiency, by educational attainment................................................................................................................ 119
Figure 3.10 (P) Problem-solving proficiency, by educational attainment........................................................................................................................... 121
Figure 3.11 (L) Likelihood of lower literacy proficiency among young adults.................................................................................................................. 122
Figure 3.12 (L) Likelihood of lower literacy proficiency among low-educated adults................................................................................................... 123
Figure 3.13 (L) Likelihood of lower literacy proficiency among older women and men............................................................................................... 124
Figure 3.14 (L) Differences in literacy proficiency scores between native- and foreign-born adults......................................................................... 126
Figure 3.15 (L) Differences in literacy proficiency scores, by immigrant and language background........................................................................ 128
Figure 3.16 (P) Problem-solving proficiency among foreign-language immigrants and non-immigrants................................................................. 129
Figure 3.17a (L) Likelihood of lower literacy proficiency among foreign-born and foreign-language adults............................................................ 130
Figure 3.18a (P) Likelihood of lower problem-solving proficiency among foreign-born and foreign-language women....................................... 131
Figure 3.19 (L) Occupation differences in literacy proficiency.............................................................................................................................................. 133
Figure 3.20 (P) Problem-solving proficiency among workers in skilled and elementary occupations...................................................................... 135
Figure 3.21 (L) Likelihood of lower literacy proficiency among adults in low-/semi-skilled occupations............................................................... 136
Figure 3.22 (P) Likelihood of lower problem-solving proficiency among older adults in low-/semi-skilled occupations.................................. 137
Figure 4.1 Average use of information-processing skills at work.................................................................................................................................. 144
Figure 4.2 Average use of generic skills at work................................................................................................................................................................ 145
Figure 4.3 High use of skills at work..................................................................................................................................................................................... 146
Figure 4.4 Labour productivity and the use of reading skills at work.......................................................................................................................... 149
Figure 4.5 Use of information-processing skills at work, by gender............................................................................................................................ 150
Figure 4.6 Use of generic skills at work, by gender.......................................................................................................................................................... 151
Figure 4.7 Gender gap in wages and in the use of problem-solving skills at work................................................................................................. 152
Figure 4.8 Use of information-processing skills at work, by age group...................................................................................................................... 153
Figure 4.9 Use of generic skills at work, by age group.................................................................................................................................................... 154
Figure 4.10 Mean ICT use at work and at home, by age group....................................................................................................................................... 155

Table of contents
Figure 4.11 Use of information-processing skills at work, by educational attainment............................................................................................. 156
Figure 4.12 Use of generic skills at work, by educational attainment........................................................................................................................... 157
Figure 4.13 The tertiary premium and the use of reading skills and task discretion at work................................................................................. 158
Figure 4.14 Use of information-processing skills at work, by type of contract........................................................................................................... 159
Figure 4.15 Use of generic skills at work, by type of contract......................................................................................................................................... 160
Figure 4.16 The wage penalty for temporary contracts and the use of problem-solving skills and task discretion at work......................... 161
Figure 4.17 Use of information-processing skills at work, by occupation................................................................................................................... 162
Figure 4.18 Use of generic skills at work, by occupation.................................................................................................................................................. 163
Figure 4.19 Use of information-processing skills at work, by industry.......................................................................................................................... 164
Figure 4.20 Use of generic skills at work, by industry........................................................................................................................................................ 165
Figure 4.21 Use of information-processing skills at work, by establishment size...................................................................................................... 166
Figure 4.22 Use of generic skills at work, by establishment size.................................................................................................................................... 167
Figure 4.23 Skills use at work, by proficiency level............................................................................................................................................................ 167
Figure 4.24 Workers in high-skilled and unskilled jobs..................................................................................................................................................... 168
Figure 4.25a Incidence of over-qualification........................................................................................................................................................................... 171
Figure 4.25b Incidence of under-qualification........................................................................................................................................................................ 171
Figure 4.25c OECD measure of skills mismatch in literacy................................................................................................................................................ 172
Figure 4.26 Overlap between qualification- and skills-mismatch measures............................................................................................................... 173
Figure 4.27 (L) Literacy proficiency scores among over- and under-qualified workers.................................................................................................. 174
Figure 4.28a Over-qualification, by socio-demographic characteristics......................................................................................................................... 175
Figure 4.28b Over-qualification, by job characteristics........................................................................................................................................................ 176
Figure 4.29 Under-qualification and over-skilling, by age................................................................................................................................................ 177
Figure 4.30 Skills use and qualification mismatch.............................................................................................................................................................. 178
Figure 4.31 Skills use and skills mismatch............................................................................................................................................................................. 179
Figure 4.32a Effect of over-qualification and over-skilling on wages............................................................................................................................... 180
Figure 4.32b Effect of under-qualification and under-skilling on wages......................................................................................................................... 181
Figure 5.1 (L) Synthesis of practice-oriented differences in literacy proficiency............................................................................................................ 189
Figure 5.2a Relationship between skills proficiency and age.......................................................................................................................................... 191
Figure 5.2b (L) Relationship between literacy proficiency and age...................................................................................................................................... 192
Figure 5.2c (L) Relationship between literacy proficiency and age (adjusted).................................................................................................................. 193
Figure 5.3 (L) Educational attainment, by average literacy proficiency............................................................................................................................ 194
Figure 5.4a (L) Effect of belonging to a certain age group on literacy proficiency.......................................................................................................... 196
Figure 5.4b (L) Effect of ageing on literacy proficiency............................................................................................................................................................ 197
Figure 5.5a (L) Literacy proficiency among young adults with and without upper secondary education................................................................ 200
Figure 5.5b (L) Literacy proficiency among adults with and without upper secondary education............................................................................. 201
Figure 5.5c (L) Literacy proficiency among young adults, by orientation of education................................................................................................. 202
Figure 5.5d (L) Literacy proficiency among young adults with tertiary education........................................................................................................... 203
Figure 5.5e (L) Literacy proficiency among young adults in selected countries, by educational attainment.......................................................... 204
Figure 5.6a (L) Mean literacy proficiency in PISA (2000 and 2003) and in the Survey of Adult Skills..................................................................... 206
Figure 5.6b (L) Mean literacy proficiency in PISA (2006 and 2009) and in the Survey of Adult Skills..................................................................... 207
Figure 5.7 (L) Participation rate in adult education, by literacy proficiency levels........................................................................................................ 208
Figure 5.8 (L) Likelihood of participating in adult education and training, by level of literacy proficiency ........................................................ 209
Figure 5.9 (L) Participation in adult education and training, by average literacy proficiency.................................................................................... 211
Figure 5.10 Reading at work and literacy proficiency........................................................................................................................................................ 213
Figure 5.11 Numeracy practice at work and numeracy proficiency.............................................................................................................................. 214
Figure 5.12 ICT use at work and literacy proficiency......................................................................................................................................................... 215
Figure 5.13 (L) Occupational structure at the country level, by average literacy proficiency...................................................................................... 216
Figure 5.14 Reading outside work and literacy proficiency............................................................................................................................................. 217
Figure 5.15 Numeracy practice outside work and numeracy proficiency................................................................................................................... 218
Figure 5.16 ICT use outside work and literacy proficiency............................................................................................................................................... 219

Table of contents
Figure 6.1 Workers’ proficiency levels...............................................................................................................................................225
Figure 6.2 (L) Mean literacy score, by labour force status.................................................................................................................................................... 226
Figure 6.3 (L) Employment status, by literacy proficiency level.......................................................................................................................................... 228
Figure 6.4 (L) Distribution of wages, by literacy proficiency level..................................................................................................................................... 229
Figure 6.5 (L) Effect of education and literacy proficiency on labour market participation....................................................................................... 230
Figure 6.6 (L) Effect of education and literacy proficiency on the likelihood of being employed............................................................................ 231
Figure 6.7 (L) Effect of education and literacy proficiency on wages................................................................................................................................ 232
Figure 6.8 (L) Effect of literacy proficiency on wages, by educational attainment........................................................................................................ 234
Figure 6.9 (L) Low literacy proficiency and negative social outcomes............................................................................................................................. 237
Figure 6.10 (L) Trust and literacy proficiency.............................................................................................................................................................................. 238
Figure 6.11 (L) Volunteering and literacy proficiency............................................................................................................................................................... 239
Figure 6.12 (L) Political efficacy and literacy proficiency........................................................................................................................................................ 240
Figure 6.13 (L) Reported health and literacy proficiency......................................................................................................................................................... 241
Figure 6.14a (L) Educational attainment, literacy proficiency and positive social outcomes......................................................................................... 243
Figure 6.15 (N) GDP per capita and numeracy........................................................................................................................................................................... 244
Figure 6.16 (L) Inequality in the distribution of income and literacy skills........................................................................................................................ 245
Tables
Table 2.1 Summary of assessment domains in the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC)...................................................................................................59
Table 2.2 Description of proficiency levels in literacy......................................................................................................................................................64
Table 2.3 Description of proficiency levels in numeracy.................................................................................................................................................76
Table 2.4 Description of proficiency levels in problem solving in technology-rich environments.....................................................................88
Table 4.1 Indicators of skills use at work............................................................................................................................................................................ 143
Table 4.2 Skills used jointly at work..................................................................................................................................................................................... 148
Table 4.3 Glossary of key terms............................................................................................................................................................................................. 170
Table A1.1 Percentage of households with access to computers and the Internet at home, 2010 or latest available year......................... 251
Table A1.2 Percentage of individuals and businesses using the Internet to interact with public authorities, 2005 and 2010................... 252
Table A1.3 Trends in employment in selected industrial sectors relative to total employment, 1980-2007.................................................... 253
Table A1.4 Share of employment in occupational groups, 1998-2009, and change in share since 1998....................................................... 253
Table A1.5 Trends in routine and non-routine tasks in occupations, United States, 1960 to 2009.................................................................... 254
Table A1.6 Share of employment in occupational groups, 1998-2009, and change in share since 1998....................................................... 254
Table A1.7a Percentage of workers who reported structural changes in their workplace........................................................................................ 255
Table A1.7b Percentage of workers who reported new ways of working in their workplace.................................................................................. 256
Table A2.1 Percentage of adults scoring at each proficiency level in literacy........................................................................................................... 257
Table A2.2a Mean literacy proficiency..................................................................................................................................................................................... 258
Table A2.2b Mean proficiency in literacy among 16-65 year-olds (adjusted).............................................................................................................. 259
Table A2.3 Mean proficiency in literacy among 16-24 year-olds (adjusted).............................................................................................................. 260
Table A2.4 Mean literacy proficiency and distribution of literacy scores, by percentile........................................................................................ 261
Table A2.5 Percentage of adults scoring at each proficiency level in numeracy...................................................................................................... 262
Table A2.6a Mean numeracy proficiency................................................................................................................................................................................ 263
Table A2.6b Mean proficiency in numeracy among 16-65 year-olds (adjusted)......................................................................................................... 264
Table A2.7 Mean proficiency in numeracy among 16-24 year-olds (adjusted)......................................................................................................... 265
Table A2.8 Mean numeracy proficiency and distribution of numeracy scores, by percentile.............................................................................. 266
Table A2.9 Correlation between literacy and numeracy proficiency............................................................................................................................ 266
Table A2.10a Percentage of adults scoring at each proficiency level in problem solving in technology-rich environments.......................... 267
Table A2.10b Percentage of 16-24 year-olds scoring at each proficiency level in problem solving in technology-rich environments........ 268
Table A2.11 Mean literacy proficiency, by level of proficiency in problem solving in technology-rich environments.................................. 269
Table A2.12 Mean numeracy proficiency, by level of proficiency in problem solving in technology-rich environments............................. 270

Table of contents
Table A3.1 (L) Difference in literacy scores between contrast categories, by socio-demographic characteristics (adjusted)........................... 271
Table A3.2 (L) Mean literacy proficiency, by 10-year age groups, and score difference between youngest and oldest adults........................ 272
Table A3.2 (N) Mean numeracy proficiency, by 10-year age groups, and score difference between youngest and oldest adults................... 272
Table A3.3 (P) Percentage of adults at each proficiency level in problem solving in technology-rich environments,
by 10-year age groups........................................................................................................................................................................................... 273
Table A3.4 (N) Mean numeracy proficiency, by gender, and score difference between men and women.............................................................. 276
by gender and labour force status...................................................................................................................................................................... 277
Table A3.6 (L) Mean literacy proficiency and score difference, by parents’ educational attainment....................................................................... 280
by parents’ educational attainment................................................................................................................................................................... 281
Table A3.8 (L) Mean literacy proficiency, by parents’ educational attainment, and impact of parents’ education on proficiency,
adults aged 16-24, 25-44 and 45-65................................................................................................................................................................ 283
Table A3.9 (L) Mean literacy proficiency, by level of educational attainment, and score difference between high- and
low-educated adults............................................................................................................................................................................................... 285
by level of educational attainment.................................................................................................................................................................... 286
Table A3.11 (L) Likelihood of 16-24 year-olds scoring at or below Level 2 in literacy, by education and work status (adjusted)..................... 288
Table A3.12 (L) Likelihood of scoring at or below Level 2 in literacy, by respondent’s and parents’ level of education (adjusted).................. 289
Table A3.13 (L) Likelihood of 45-65 year-olds scoring at or below Level 2 in literacy, by gender and by respondent’s
and parents’ educational attainment (adjusted)............................................................................................................................................. 290
Table A3.14 (L) Mean literacy proficiency, by immigrant background, and score difference between native- and foreign-born adults......... 291
Table A3.15 (L) Mean literacy proficiency, by immigrant and language background, and score difference between
native-born/native-language and foreign-born/foreign-language ........................................................................................................... 292
by immigrant and language background......................................................................................................................................................... 293
Table A3.17 (L) Likelihood of scoring at or below Level 2 in literacy, by immigrant, language and
socio-economic background (adjusted)........................................................................................................................................................... 295
Table A3.18 (P) Likelihood of scoring at or below Level 1, or receiving no score, in problem solving in technology-rich environments,
by immigrant and language background, and gender (adjusted)............................................................................................................. 296
Table A3.19 (L) Mean literacy proficiency, by type of occupation, and score difference between workers in skilled
and elementary occupations............................................................................................................................................................................... 297
Table A3.20 (P) Percentage of adults who worked during previous five years at each proficiency level in problem solving
in technology-rich environments, by type of occupation........................................................................................................................... 298
Table A3.21 (L) Likelihood of scoring at or below Level 2 in literacy, by educational attainment and type of occupation (adjusted)............ 300
Table A3.22 (P) Likelihood of scoring at or below Level 1, or receiving no score, in problem solving in technology-rich environments,
by age, gender and type of occupation (adjusted)........................................................................................................................................ 301
Table A4.1 Mean use of information-processing skills at work...................................................................................................................................... 302
Table A4.2 Mean use of generic skills at work.................................................................................................................................................................... 302
Table A4.3 Percentage of workers who use their skills frequently................................................................................................................................. 303
Table A4.4 Labour productivity and average reading at work........................................................................................................................................ 304
Table A4.5a Mean use of information-processing skills at work, by gender................................................................................................................. 305
Table A4.5b Gender differences in the use of information-processing skills at work (adjusted)............................................................................ 306
Table A4.6a Mean use of generic skills at work, by gender............................................................................................................................................... 307
Table A4.6b Gender differences in the use of generic skills at work (adjusted).......................................................................................................... 308
Table A4.7 Gender gap in wages and in the use of problem-solving skills at work................................................................................................. 309
Table A4.8a Mean use of information-processing skills at work, by age group........................................................................................................... 310
Table A4.8b Differences in the use of information-processing skills at work, by age group (adjusted)............................................................... 312
Table A4.9a Mean use of generic skills at work, by age group......................................................................................................................................... 313
Table A4.9b Differences in the use of generic skills at work, by age group (adjusted).............................................................................................. 315
Table A4.10 Mean ICT use at home and at work, by age group....................................................................................................................................... 316
Table A4.11a Mean use of information-processing skills at work, by educational attainment................................................................................. 317
Table A4.11b Differences in the use of information-processing skills at work, by educational attainment (adjusted)...................................... 319

Table of contents
Table A4.12a Mean use of generic skills at work, by educational attainment................................................................................................................ 320
Table A4.12b Differences in the use of generic skills at work, by educational attainment (adjusted)................................................................... 322
Table A4.13 Tertiary gap in wages and in the use of skills at work................................................................................................................................. 323
Table A4.14a Mean use of information-processing skills at work, by contract type..................................................................................................... 324
Table A4.14b Differences in the use of information-processing skills at work, by contract type (adjusted)......................................................... 325
Table A4.15a Mean use of generic skills at work, by contract type................................................................................................................................... 326
Table A4.15b Differences in the use of generic skills at work, by contract type (adjusted)........................................................................................ 327
Table A4.16 Gap in wages and in the use of skills at work between types of contract............................................................................................. 328
Table A4.17 Mean use of information-processing skills at work, by occupation........................................................................................................ 329
Table A4.18 Mean use of generic skills at work, by occupation...................................................................................................................................... 334
Table A4.19 Mean use of information-processing skills at work, by industry.............................................................................................................. 339
Table A4.20 Mean use of generic skills at work, by industry............................................................................................................................................. 344
Table A4.21 Mean use of information-processing skills at work, by establishment size........................................................................................... 349
Table A4.22 Mean use of generic skills at work, by establishment size......................................................................................................................... 352
Table A4.23 Distribution of skills use, by proficiency level............................................................................................................................................... 355
Table A4.24 Workers in jobs requiring low or high levels of education........................................................................................................................ 357
Table A4.25 Percentage of workers in each category of qualification and skills mismatch..................................................................................... 358
Table A4.26 Percentage of workers in each category of skills mismatch, by qualification-mismatch status...................................................... 359
Table A4.27 (L) Mean literacy score, adjusted for years of education, gender, age and foreign-born status,
by qualification-mismatch status........................................................................................................................................................................ 361
Table A4.28 Likelihood of over-qualification, by socio-demographic and job characteristics............................................................................... 362
Table A4.29 Likelihood of under-qualification and over-skilling, by age group.......................................................................................................... 364
Table A4.30 Mean use of information-processing skills, adjusted for literacy and numeracy proficiency,
by qualification-mismatch status........................................................................................................................................................................ 365
Table A4.31 Mean use of information-processing skills, adjusted for literacy and numeracy proficiency,
by skills-mismatch status....................................................................................................................................................................................... 366
Table A4.32a Effect of qualification and numeracy mismatch on wages......................................................................................................................... 367
Table A4.32b Effect of numeracy mismatch on wages........................................................................................................................................................... 368
Table A4.32c Effect of qualification mismatch on wages...................................................................................................................................................... 369
Table A5.1 (L) Difference in literacy scores between contrast categories, by socio-demographic characteristics
and practice-oriented factors (adjusted)........................................................................................................................................................... 370
Table A5.2 (L) Relationship between age and literacy proficiency...................................................................................................................................... 372
Table A5.3 (L) Distribution of literacy proficiency scores, and percentage of adults with at least upper secondary education...................... 373
Table A5.4 (L) Relationship between age and literacy proficiency, 1994-1998 (International Adult Literacy Survey – IALS).......................... 374
Table A5.5a (L) Distribution of literacy proficiency scores, by educational attainment.................................................................................................. 375
Table A5.5b (L) Distribution of literacy proficiency scores, by orientation of education................................................................................................ 378
Table A5.6 (L) Mean literacy scores in PISA (2000-09) and in the Survey of Adult Skills (2012) for corresponding cohorts............................ 379
Table A5.7 (L) Percentage of adults who participated in adult education and training during year prior to the survey,
by level of literacy proficiency............................................................................................................................................................................ 380
Table A5.8 (L) Likelihood of participating in adult education and training during year prior to the survey,
by level of proficiency in literacy (adjusted)................................................................................................................................................... 382
Table A5.9 (L) Distribution of literacy proficiency scores, and percentage of adults participating in adult education
and training during year prior to the survey................................................................................................................................................... 383
Table A5.10 Relationship between reading at work and literacy proficiency.............................................................................................................. 384
Table A5.11 Relationship between numeracy-related practices at work and numeracy proficiency................................................................... 385
Table A5.12 Relationship between ICT-related practices at work and literacy proficiency..................................................................................... 386
Table A5.13 (L) Distribution of literacy proficiency scores, and percentage of adults who worked in high-skilled occupations
during previous five years..................................................................................................................................................................................... 387
Table A5.14 Relationship between reading outside of work and literacy proficiency............................................................................................... 388
Table A5.15 Relationship between reading outside of work and numeracy proficiency.......................................................................................... 389
Table A5.16 Relationship between ICT-related practices outside of work and literacy proficiency...................................................................... 390

Table of contents
Table A6.1 (L) Distribution of workers’ proficiency in literacy, percentage...................................................................................................................... 391
Table A6.1 (N) Distribution of workers’ proficiency in numeracy, percentage................................................................................................................. 391
Table A6.1 (P) Distribution of workers’proficiency in problem solving in technology-rich environments, percentage...................................... 392
Table A6.2 (L) Mean literacy proficiency, by labour force status......................................................................................................................................... 392
Table A6.3 (L) Percentage of adults in each labour market status, by level of proficiency in literacy...................................................................... 393
Table A6.4 (L) Distribution of wages among employees, by level of proficiency in literacy....................................................................................... 395
Table A6.5 (L) Effect of education and literacy proficiency on the likelihood of adults participating in the labour market............................. 396
Table A6.6 (L) Effect of education and literacy proficiency on the likelihood of adults being employed............................................................... 397
Table A6.7 (L) Effect of years of education and literacy proficiency on wages................................................................................................................ 398
Table A6.8 (L) Effect of literacy proficiency on wages, by level of education.................................................................................................................. 399
Table A6.9 (L) Likelihood of adults scoring at or below Level 1 in literacy reporting low levels of trust and political efficacy,
fair or poor health, or of not participating in volunteer activities (adjusted)........................................................................................ 400
Table A6.10 (L) Likelihood of adults reporting low levels of trust, by level of proficiency in literacy (adjusted).................................................... 401
Table A6.11a (L) Likelihood of adults participating in volunteer activities, by level of proficiency in literacy (adjusted)...................................... 402
Table A6.11b (L) Likelihood of adults not participating in volunteer activities, by level of proficiency in literacy (adjusted).............................. 402
Table A6.12 (L) Likelihood of adults reporting low levels of political efficacy, by level of proficiency in literacy (adjusted)............................. 403
Table A6.13 (L) Likelihood of adults reporting fair or poor health, by level of proficiency in literacy (adjusted)................................................... 403
Table A6.14 (L) Likelihood of adults reporting positive social outcomes, by level of education and proficiency in literacy
(adjusted marginal probabilities) ....................................................................................................................................................................... 404
Table A6.15 (N) GDP per capita (2011) and percentage of adults at or below Level 2 or at Level 4 or higher in numeracy ............................. 406
Table A6.16 (L) Inequality in the distribution of income and literacy skills........................................................................................................................ 406
Table B1.1 Trends in mobile phone and Internet subscriptions, 1999-2009 and relative to 1999 proportions.............................................. 409
Table B1.2 Percentage of businesses with Internet access, by firm size, 2010 or latest available year............................................................. 409
Table B1.3 Percent of individuals who ordered or purchased goods or services on the Internet, 2007 and 2011,
or latest available year........................................................................................................................................................................................... 410
Table B1.4 Shares of added value of selected industrial sectors relative to the total economy, latest available year
between 2005 and 2009....................................................................................................................................................................................... 411
Table B1.5 Average annual percentage growth of share of professionals, associated professional and technicians,
by industry, 1998-2008......................................................................................................................................................................................... 411
Table B1.6 Change in share of employment between 1998 and 2008, by occupational groups designated as low-,
medium- or high-skilled ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 412
Table B1.7 Share of employment in occupational groups, 1998-2009, and change in share since 1998, by country................................ 412
Table B2.1 GDP per capita, USD............................................................................................................................................................................................ 413
Table B2.2 Percentage of adults, by age and level of educational attainment........................................................................................................... 414
Table B2.3 Foreign-born population as a percentage of total population................................................................................................................... 415
Table B2.4a Average proportion of reading component items answered correctly, by literacy proficiency level............................................ 416
Table B2.4b Average time spent completing a reading component item, in seconds, by literacy proficiency level....................................... 418
Table B2.5a Percentage of adults with no computer experience .................................................................................................................................... 420
Table B2.5b Percentage of adults who failed ICT core test ............................................................................................................................................... 421
Table B2.5c Percentage of adults who opted out of taking the computer-based assessment ................................................................................. 422
Table B2.5d Percentage of adults who took the computer-based assessment.............................................................................................................. 423
Table B2.5e Literacy and numeracy mean scores, by experience with computers and the computer-based assessment.............................. 424
Table B2.5f Percentage of adults at each level of engagement in ICT-related practices in everyday life,
by experience with computers and the computer-based assessment..................................................................................................... 425
Table B2.5g Percentage of adults at each level of engagement in ICT-related practices at work,
by experience with computers and the computer-based assessment..................................................................................................... 427
Table B2.6 Relationship between literacy proficiency and taking the paper-based assessment.......................................................................... 429
Table B3.1 (L) Mean literacy proficiency, by age and gender, and score difference between men and women aged 16‑24........................... 430
Table B3.1 (N) Mean numeracy proficiency, by age and gender, and score difference between men and women aged 16‑24...................... 431
Table B3.2 Mean engagement in ICT-related practices, by gender, and difference between men and women............................................. 432

Skills Outlook: First results from the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC)

Skills Outlook: First results from the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC)

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