Home economics notes

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HOME ECONOMICS
CGA
LECTURE NOTES
Mr. HOSEA

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1. NUTRITION; FOOD SELECTION AND PREPARATION
 TERMINOLOGIES
Food- it is any substance solid or liquid which after it is eaten by an animal is capable of
being digested, absorbed and utilized. Food;
o Promote growth
o Repair worn out tissues
o Produces heat and energy
o Regulates health of body and maintain normal body process and prevents diseases
Nutrition- it is a process where an organism obtains food and utilizes it.
Nutrients- they are organic and inorganic substances contained in the food materials that are
absorbed and utilized in the body tissues.
Malnutrition- This is bad feeding where there is intake of less than the required amount of
food or total lack of some food components.
Inadequate supply of a particular nutrient results to deficiency diseases.
Diet- it is the food and beverage a person consumes. Beverages are drinks that are made for
human consumption. They could be alcoholic or non alcoholic.
 FOOD CLASSIFICATION
Food is classified into;
a. Body building food
Proteins
They build new cells necessary for growth. They also repair the cells which have been
destroyed as a result of diseases.
Everybody needs some protein in the diet even if they have stopped growing. In certain times
in life the need varies. Children, adolescents, expectant and lactating mothers require more
protein than other adults. Human beings obtain proteins from plants and animals.
To ensure good supply of good quality protein in the body, both animal and plant protein
should be consumed.
Proteins are essential in the diet because they are not stored in the body.
Excess amino acids are deaminated.
There are two sources of proteins;
Plant protein eg from peas, beans etc.
Animal protein eg from fish, eggs, milk etc
The structural units of proteins are amino acids. There are two types of amino acids. Namely;
 Essential amino acids are those which cannot be synthesized in the body of an organism and
must therefore be provided in the diet.
 Non-essential amino acids are those which the body can synthesize and therefore need not be
available in the diet.
Protein that contain all the essential amino acids in sufficient quantities are said to be of high
biological value. Many of these foods are from animal origin. E.g. eggs, meat, milk, fish etc.
Proteins that lack one or more of these essential amino acids are said to be of low biological
value. They are mainly found in plant foods. E.g;
Cereals like wheat, maize etc
Pods like beans and peas. However, soya beans contain high biological value plant protein.
Vegetables.
Functions of Proteins
 As structural materials proteins-
 Are the basic building structures of protoplasms.
 Proteins in conjunction with lipid form the cell membrane.
Examples of structural proteins include:

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Keratin (in hair, nails, hoofs, feathers and wool)
Elastin forms ligaments that join bones to each other.
 Protective proteins.
 Antibodies that protect the body against foreign antigens.
 Fibrinogen and thrombin are involved in clot formation, preventing entry of micro-organisms
when blood vessel is cut.
 As functional chemical compounds.
 Examples are hormones and enzymes that act as regulators in the body.
 Respiratory pigments.
Examples are haemoglobin that transports oxygen in the blood.
 Proteins combine with other chemical groups to form important substances e.g. mucin in
saliva.
 Source of energy.
 Proteins are a source of energy in extreme conditions when carbohydrates and fats are not
available e.g. in starvation.
Deficiencies of proteins lead to;
Malfunction of various organs due to hormone and enzyme deficiency.
Lack of antibodies which makes the body more susceptible to disease.
Retardation of growth in children
Deficiency diseases like kwashiokor.
b. Energy giving food
Carbohydrates
They are made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
They are classified into three main groups: monosaccharides, disaccharides and
polysaccharides.
 Monosaccharides
They are the simple sugars. They are soluble in water. They have a sweet taste.
The most common monosaccharides are:
 Glucose - found free in fruits and vegetables eg cabbages. This is the form of
carbohydrates that the body uses for energy. All the other carbohydrates are converted to
glucose during digestion.
 Fructose - found free in fruits and in bee honey.
 Galactose - found combined in milk sugar.
Functions of Monosaccharides
o They are oxidised in the cells to produce energy during respiration.
o Formation of important biological molecules e.g. deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and
ribonucleic acid (RNA).
o Monosaccharides are the units from which other more complex sugars are formed through
condensation.
 Disaccharides
o These contain two monosaccharide units. They are soluble in water. They have a sweet taste.
o They are present in some fruits eg pineapple and vegetables eg carrots.
o The chemical process through which a large molecule (e.g. a disaccharide) is formed from
smaller molecules is called condensation and it involves loss of water.
Common examples of disaccharides include sucrose, maltose and lactose.
Functions
Disaccharides are hydrolysed to produce monosaccharide units which are readily metabolised
by cell to provide energy.
 Polysaccharides

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If many monosaccharides are joined together through condensation, a polysaccharide is
formed. They are insoluble in water. They do not have a sweet taste.
Polysaccharides may consist of hundreds or even thousands of monosaccharide units.
Examples of polysaccharides:
 Starch - storage material in plants. For example in root vegetables, cereals and pulses.
 Glycogen is a storage carbohydrate in animals. It is stored in the liver and when energy is
required it is converted to glucose.
 Cellulose – form cell wall in plants.
 Chitin - forms exoskeleton in arthropods.
Functions of Polysaccharides
o They are storage carbohydrates - starch in plants and glycogen in animals.
o They are hydrolysed to their constituent monosaccharide units and used for respiration to
provide energy.
o They form structural material e.g. cellulose makes cell walls.
o Cellulose has wide commercial uses e.g.
 Fibre in cloth industry.
 Cellulose is used to make paper.
Carbohydrates combine with other molecules to form important structural compounds in
living organisms.
Excess carbohydrates are converted into fats and stored for later production of energy.
Deficiency of carbohydrates leads to;
Loss of weight
Loss of energy.
Fats
They are made up of fatty acids. Animal foods like meat and dairy products have saturated
fats while other foods like fish and seeds have unsaturated fats.
They provide energy to the body.
They protect vital organs of the body.
Source includes;
Animal origin- cheese, cream, meat fat etc.
Vegetable origin-margarine, cooking fat, nuts etc.
c. Protective food
 Vitamins
These are organic compounds that are essential for proper growth, development and
functioning of the body.
They protect the body against diseases.
They do not produce energy.
Vitamin B and K can be synthesized in the body.
Their deficiency may lead to ill-health.
Vitamins are required in very small quantities.
They are not stored and must be included in the diet.
There are two groups. Namely,
Fat soluble vitamins- A, D, E, K
Water soluble vitamins- B and C
Various vitamins are used in different ways.
Vitamin A;
Assist in growth of children particularly bones and teeth.
Helps the body to resist infection
Enable people to see better at night.
Keep the mucous membrane moist.
Sources;
Animal sources- kidney, liver, eggs, milk, fish etc
Vegetable sources- carrots, tomato etc.

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Others include margarine and cooking oil.
Deficiency of vitamin A leads to;
Poor night vision
Retarded growth in children
Dry mucous membrane
Vitamin B;
Encourage growth of the body
Ensure body obtain energy from carbohydrates
Keep nervous system in good condition
Sources;
Eggs, kidney, liver, beef, whole meal bread etc.
Deficiency of vitamin B1 leads to beriberi.
Vitamin C;
Necessary for growth of children
Assist in healing of cuts and uniting broken bones
Prevent gum and mouth infection
Act as antioxidant
Help the body to resist infection
Sources;
Tomato, oranges, potatoes, green vegetables etc.
Deficiency leads to scurvy.
Vitamin D;
Enable the body to make use of calcium and phosphorus
Important for healthy bones and teeth
Aids in growth and development in children.
Sources;
Sunlight, dairy products. oily fish, margarine etc.
Vitamin E;
Helps in fertility
Act as antioxidant
Aids in synthesis of vitamin C
Muscle contraction
Sources;
Milk, all grains, green vegetables, fruits etc.
Deficiency leads to;
Sterility
Miscarriage
Degeneration of body parts
Vitamin K;
Functions
Synthesis of prothrombin important for blood clotting.
Help the liver to do its function
Sources;
Green vegetables, cereals and eggs.
Deficiency leads to;
Delay in blood clotting
Excess bleeding hence leading to anaemia
 Mineral salts
Most of them are required in small amounts and others in large amounts. They include;
 Calcium

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There is greater demand for calcium in children, adolescents, expectant and nursing mothers.
This is because of the need for strong bones and teeth.
Functions;
Building strong bones
Clotting of blood
Working of muscles
Sources;
Milk and milk products
Whole meal bread
 Phosphorus
Required by the body for building bones and teeth
Sources;
Liver, kidney, eggs, fish, bread etc.
 Iron
Required for building heamoglobin in blood.
Sources;
Green vegetables, whole meal flour, fish, lean meat, egg yolk etc.
 Iodine
Help in functioning of thyroid gland.
Sources;
Vegetables, iodised table salt, sea foods etc
o Fibre -Roughage is dietary fibre and it consists mainly of cellulose.
It adds bulk to the food and provides grip for the gut muscles to enhance peristalsis.
It helps in digestion. Roughage does not provide any nutritional value because humans and
non ruminant animals do not produce cellulase enzyme to digest cellulose.
In herbivores symbiotic bacteria in the gut produce cellulase that digests cellulose.
Sources;
From cereals, fruits and fibrous vegetables.
B. Fibre helps lower cholesterol
Soluble fibre in oats, rye contains plant sterols, these plant sterols can block the
absorption of cholesterol in the intestine so the cholesterol passes out of the body.
Eg. Porridge is a good source of plant sterols.
C. Fibre adds bulk to the diet.
By including foods high in fibre in the diet, they can create a feeling of fullness
without adding extra kilocalories to a meal eg. Homemade vegetable soup with lots of
chunky vegetables, adding peppers, mushrooms, tomatoes to casseroles and Bolognese
sauce. Good for people on low Kcal diets.
Fibre Deficiency
A. Constipation
If there is a lack of fibre in the diet, the faeces remain hard in the colon as they cannot
expand and stimulate peristalsis. As a result faeces can ‘sit’ for long periods of time in
the colon → called constipation.
B. Diverticulitis
If constipation continues regularly over a number of years pockets or distortions may
form in the walls of the colon called ‘diverticula’ (The condition is called
diverticulitis). Waste/faeces may lodge in these diverticula, accompanied by
pain/discomfort.
C. Colon Cancer
If waste lodges in the diverticula it can ‘go off’ and produce toxins. The toxins can in

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turn act as carcinogens causing normal healthy cells to divide abnormally and produce
a tumour
 BALANCED DIET
It refers to a diet which contains all the essential nutrients in their right proportion according
to the needs of the body at a particular time. A balanced diet should contain the following:
 Carbohydrates
 Proteins
 Lipids
 Vitamins
 Mineral Salts
 Water
 Dietary fibre or roughage.
 NUTRITIONAL DISORDERS
They include;
1) Kwashiorkor
Cause; Lack of protein in the diet of children.
Symptoms; the body becomes very weak,
Brown thin hair which falls off easily,
Retarded growth,
Swollen abdomen
Skin becomes pale
Control; take a balanced diet with enough food rich in protein.
2) Marasmus
It is as a result of total starvation. Ie when one does not get enough food.
Symptoms
Extreme loss of weight
Severe loss of fluid,
Sunken eyes.
Skin is wrinkled because there is no subcutaneous fat
Child is weak and has retarded growth
Corrective measures
Provide individual with enough food.
3) Goitre
Symptom, swollen neck
Cause; lack of iodine
Control; take food rich in iodine eg iodized table salt and sea foods
4) Scurvy
Symptom, bleeding of the gum
Anaemia
Swellings on the skin
Poor healing of wounds
Reduced resistance to infection
Cause; lack of vitamin C
Control; Take food rich in vitamin C
5) Beriberi
Symptoms;
Swelling of the feet and legs.
Slowing of heart beat

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Intestinal disorder
Fatigue
Loss of appetite
Wasting of muscles
Cause;
Lack of vitamin B1 (Thiamine)
Control;
Take food rich in vitamin B1
6) Obesity
It is excessive body weight
Causes;
Eating too much food especially fats and carbohydrates.
Lack of exercise
Faulty metabolism
Symptoms
Excessive body weight; the body becomes extremely fat
Laboured breathing
Prevention
Exercise regularly
Avoid excessive intake of food especially fats and carbohydrates.
7) Dental carries
They are the holes or cavities that are formed as acid corrodes enamel and eventually the
dentine.
Causes
 This is caused by bacteria acting on the food left between teeth and on the cusp.
Acids are formed that eventually corrode the enamel and dentine. The pulp cavity is
eventually reached. A lot of pain is experienced. The bacteria then infect the pulp cavity and
the whole tooth decays.
Treatment
Treatment depends on the extent of the dental caries which could be;
 Extraction of Tooth.
 Filling - this involves replacing the dentine with amalgam, a mixture of hard elements e.g.
silver and tin.
 Root Canal Treatment - This involves surgery and reconstruction.
It saves severely damaged teeth. The nerves in the root canal are surgically severed. The
tooth is cleaned and filled up.
8) Food allergies
It is a medical condition in which one becomes ill after eating some foods. Some people with
allergies are usually oversensitive to some foods like meat, milk, eggs, fish, nuts etc.
Symptoms; rashes appear on the skin, itching, sneezing or vomiting.
Allergic reactions can be controlled by avoiding the allergen/ allergy causing foods or
administration of anti-histamine drugs.
9) Anaemia
Cause; lack of iron
Symptoms; pale body especially the eyes, finger nails, gum in the mouth and palms of the
hand.
Feeling tired
Dizziness and unable to think clearly
Constant headache
Shortness of breath

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General body weakness
Control; take food rich in iron e.g liver, milk and green vegetables
 NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS OF DIFFERENT HOUSEHOLD MEMBERS
a) Pre-schoolers (0-5yrs)
At this age the children appetite is small and therefore the food should be served in small
amount and attractively presented to encourage the child to eat more.
The child is growing and has increased activity. The diet should include;
o Protein for body building
o Calcium for formation of bones and teeth
o Iron for formation of red blood cells
b) School age children (6-12yrs)
Growth and body activities are increasing tremendously. The meal must therefore be
provided with enough nutrients for body growth and maintenance.
c) Adolescents (13-19yrs)
This is a period of rapid growth and body development hence nutrient requirements are also
high.
They require increased amount of energy but should avoid fats which cause skin problems.
The boys require a lot of nutrient for body building while girls require more iron.
Because of production of hormones, the feeds should supply plenty of B vitamins and plenty
of fresh fruits.
d) Adults (20 and above)
Here growth has stopped, so food is required to maintain and repair the body to keep it
healthy.
Nutrients required are determined by the body size and amount of daily activity.
Women need a small amount of food than men but iron requirement is high.
The type of job and amount of daily activity will affect the amount of energy and nutrients
that is required and the meal should be planned according to the occupation
For very active jobs the meal should provide sufficient energy. If they work in a hot
atmosphere, they require extra water.
e) Sedentary jobs; white collar jobs.
They don’t use a lot of energy.
They are supposed to take light meals that are easily digested. Bulky meals will take long to
digest causing discomfort.
f) Expectant and lactating mothers
They should be on a balanced diet.
They need extra protein for body building and protection, vitamin A and D is required for
bone and teeth development.
They need a good supply of mineral salts e. g calcium and phosphorus for bone and teeth
formation.
They also need iron for development of red blood cells.
g) Geriatrics (aged people)
Food is required to maintain health and strength of the body. There is increased requirement
for;
o Calcium and vitamin D to avoid decalcification. I e gradual removal of calcium from bones
and teeth so that they become brittle and weak.
o Iron to prevent anaemia
o Fibre to prevent constipation which is common in aged people.
h) Invalids and convalescents

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Nutritional requirement depend on the type of the disease. The diet depends on doctor
recommendations.
Those recovering from surgery require soft foods.
Those who have been suffering various diseases require plenty of fruit to regain their lost
strength.
The rest of nutritional requirements are like for normal people. I e depending on age, sex etc.
 FOOD SOURCES AND SELECTION
Food sources- Food is grown at home while some are purchased from the market.
Selection
In food sources selection is considered first.
Grains should be white, free of pests, right colour etc.
Fruits and vegetables should be of right colour and free from bruises.
Meat, fish and chicken flesh should be of right colour. Fish should be white; chicken should
be white depending on breed and meat red.
Ensure that there is no foul smell.
Eggs should have correct size and weight.
Sources
 Carbohydrates
Obtained from different foods, this includes;
Cereals like maize, wheat, rice, sorghum etc
Root crops like sweet potatoes and cassava
Tubers like irish potato.
 Proteins
Obtained from foods like; milk, eggs, fish, liver, kidney, meat, beans, ground nuts etc.
 Lipids
Obtained from foods like;
Oil seeds e.g. ground nuts, cashewnuts, coconuts etc
Animal products like meat, milk and fish.
 Vitamins
The main sources are fresh fruits and vegetables.
They are also obtained from beans, unpolished cereals, milk, eggs, fish, liver, and kidney.
Fresh fruits include mango, pawpaw, lemon, oranges
Vegetables include cabbage, spinach, sukuma wiki, carrots and tomato
 Mineral Salts
Obtained from;
o Protein foods like; milk, meat, eggs, fish, liver, kidney.
o Vegetables.
o Iodised table salt.
 Water
Sources include;
Food e.g. fruit
Metabolic water
Drinking.
 Dietary fibre or roughage
Obtained from foods like fruits, vegetables and unpolished cereals.
 MEAL PLANNING
It is a guideline for controlling the aspects of what one eats.
Factors considered when doing Meal planning

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 Colour combination; the food should be of different colour so that they are attractive. The
colour stimulate ones appetite, but colours should not be repeated.
 Texture; the way the food feels in the mouth either soft or hard. The food should be of
different texture eg hard, soft, fried, boiled, etc. this breaks the monotony. Avoid overcooking
foods.
 Nutritional needs; consider age, sex, health conditions, daily activities, climate, likes,
dislikes, custom and taboos.
 Time available for cooking
 Inseason foods eg meat, grains. Food in season will be fresh, easily available and cheaper and
therefore lower the food cost. They should therefore be utilized as much as possible.
Stages followed;
o Find all protein items for the whole meal period building in variety and cost balance. The rest
of the meal can be planned around this central costly balance.
o Choose a starch to balance each protein item for; colour, texture, flavor and nutrients.
o Vegetables can be choosen, and then enter the soup and cold starters balancing weight and
freshness.
o Consider garnishing, nutritional value and presentation.
 FOOD POISONING
It is an acute illness caused by microorganisms and is acquired by eating any contaminated
foods.
It can also be caused by taking in chemicals. Most food poisoning is caused by bacteria.
Symptoms of food poisoning;
1) Severe abdominal pain
2) Diarrhoea
3) Nausea
4) Vomiting
Symptoms may occurs immediately or delay for at least 72 hours or less.
Prevention of food poisoning
1) Personal hygiene
2) Avoid handling raw and cooked food together to avoid close contamination
3) Handle cooked food as little as possible
4) Do not store raw and cooked foods together.
5) Store food at the correct temperature
6) Do not taste foods with your fingers
7) Cover foods
8) Do not sneeze or cough over foods
9) Don’t wear jewellery when cooking
10) Don’t blow your nose when cooking
Causes of food poisoning
Bacteria and other microbes
Chemicals and metals
Poisonous plants
 FOOD PREPARATION AND SERVICE
 Cooking methods
There are different methods of preparing foods. They include;
o Dry heat cooking
o Moist heat cooking

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Dry heat cooking; it is where heat is directly transferred to the food without using any
moisture. Examples of this method include;
 Roasting; it is cooking in dry heat with aid of fat or oil in an oven.
 Baking; it is cooking of food with dry heat in an oven. Steam is derived from an item being
baked.
 Grilling; it is a type of cooking using radiant heat. It is also called broiling.
 Frying; they include shallow or deep frying.
Shallow frying is cooking of food in a small quantity of preheated fat or oil in a shallow pan
or flat surface.
Deep frying is cooking of food in fat or oil. The food item is totally immersed in hot fat or
oil and cooked quickly. The heat of the oil penetrates the food and cooks it.
 Microwave; it is a method of cooking or preheating of food using electromagnetic waves in a
microwave powered by electricity.
Moist heat cooking; it is cooking with, or in any type of liquid whether water, wine etc.
 Boiling; it is a method of cooking in which food is immersed in boiling water.
 Steaming; food is cooked in the steam produced by boiling liquid. It relies on steam
produced being under pressure.
 Poaching; it is cooking of food in liquid at just below boiling point. For most food the
poaching liquid is heated first and when the desired temperature is reached, the prepared food
is lowered and allowed to cook into gentle heat.
 Braising; it is a moist cooking method of larger pieces of food. The liquid only half covers
the food.
MEAL SERVICE
During service it is good to consider;
 Balance
Colours- food should have a variety of colours, two or three colours on a plate are more
interesting than one. This is achieved by buying and cooking fresh foods which have original
colour eg vegetables
Texture. Good balance requires a variety of textures on the plate.
Flavour- how the food feels in the mouth. Use a variety of flavours to enhance balance and
taste
Shapes- cutting vegetables into different shapes gives great flexibility. For example carrots
which can be cut into dice, sticks, round rings can be adapted to a neat plate.
 Portion size
It refers to the amount served to an individual. It is important for presentation. Portion size
should match with plates. Select plates that are large enough to hold all items without
overcrowding. Small plates look overcrowded and become messy.
The portion offered is determined by;
o The quality of food. A better quality food yields a greater number of portions than poor
quality food.
o Individual to be served. A heavy industrial male worker requires a bigger portion than a
female secretary.
Guidelines
Keep food off the rim
Keep space between items unless they are mixed together
Keep it simple.

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DISHES
 Stock
It is a thin liquid flavoured by soluble substances and flavours extracted from meat, poultry,
fish and their bones and from vegetables and seasonings. It is extracted by prolonged and
gentle simmering or transfer of flavor from meat, soup or stock. It is the bases of soup.
The goodness of the material is drawn into the liquid imparting the desired level of flavor and
other elements whether soup or sauce.
There are two types of stock. Namely;
Brown stock
White stock
Ingredients;
1) Bones- they are major ingredients. Bones are obtained from beef, chicken, fish, lamb and
pork.
2) Meat- it is usually simmered to obtain broth (flavoured liquid) which act as stock.
3) Mirepox- it is a combination of carrots, onion, celery and other vegetables. The ratio of
onion, carrot and celery is 2:1:1 respectively. It is a basic flavouring preparation that is used
in all areas of cooking.
Key points to remember when making stock;
o Salt should never be added
o If it is to be stored, strain it and cool quickly, then place in a refrigerator.
o They should always be simmered gently. If allowed to boil quickly, it will evaporate and go
milky.
o Fat should be skimmed or otherwise it will taste greasy
o Scum should be removed, otherwise it will boil and spoil the colour and flavor
o When making chicken stock the bones need to be soaked first to remove the blood that is in
the cavities.
 Sauces
It is a thick fluid that is eaten with or on food to add flavor to it or used in preparing other
foods.
They are not normally consumed by themselves. They add;
o Flavour
o Moisture
o Visual appeal to other dishes
They can be thickened by;
Corn flour, arrowroot and starch
Egg yolk
Reducing cooking liquor or stock
Flour
Roux- it is a combination of fat and floor which are cooked together.
 Soup
It is a liquid made of stock in which meat and vegetables have been simmered for a long
time. Soups are usually served as starters. It is either served cold or warm. There are two
types of soups;
Thick soups are opaque. They are thickened either by adding a thickening agent like roux,
cornflour etc.
Clear soups are transparent. It can be served plain or accompanied by other items.
How to prepare a clear soup
o Place the clarification in a stock pot and mix thoroughly with cold stock. Clarification makes
the soup clear. It consists of some proteins. Proteins e. g egg white dissolves in cold water,

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when water is heated it gradually solidifies and float on the surface. The protein collects all
the tiny particles that crowds on the soup and it is left clear.
o Place on fire, add salt and bring slowly to boil and stir frequently.
o Reduce heat, add brown onion and simmer for 2-3 hrs. Do not stir anymore.
o Pass the soup through a straining cloth.
o Re-boil and remove all fat floating at the top.
o Garnish the clear soup according to the particular recipe.
NB:
Mix the minced meat and the egg white with the cold water. Add the cleaned and coarsely
shredded vegetables as well as the spices.
The clarification should be prepared 8 hrs before the actual cooking of the clear soup and
should be kept in the refrigerator.
 Meat; they include;
i. Fish
They are valuable because they are good sources of protein, are suitable for all types of meals
and can be cooked in a wide variety of ways.
Most fish are usually tender. They must therefore be cooked with great care and overcooking
avoided as this can dry and toughen it.
Preparation;
They should be washed under cold running water before and after preparation.
Whole fish are trimmed to remove the scales, fins and gills using fish scissors and a knife. If
the head is to be left the gills and the eyes should be removed.
Methods;
o Boiling
It is suitable for whole fish. Fish should completely be immersed in the cooking liquid which
could be water, milk etc.
Whole fish is covered with cold liquid and brought to the boiling point.
o Poaching
Suitable for small whole fish, cuts and fillets.
Cooked without allowing the liquid to boil.
o Steaming
It is prepared the same way as for poaching.
This method has several advantages;
It is easy
It is rapid therefore conserving flavor and nutrients.
Suitable for large scale operation.
o Grilling
It is suitable for small whole fish, cuts and fillets. The fish is passed through the flour,
brushed with oil and grilled on both side.
o Shallow frying
it is suitable for small whole fish, cuts and fillets. The fish is shallow fried on both sides in a
frying pan. When fish is placed on a serving plate a slice of lemon is also served.
o Deep frying
Suitable for small whole fish, cuts and fillets. The fish can be coated with either flour, eggs
and crumbs, milk and flour or butter.
The coating forms a surface to prevent penetration of fat in the fish. The fish is served with a
quarter slice of lemon or a suitable sauce.
o Baking
Suitable for whole fish and fillets.
In order to sustain moisture it is necessary to protect the fish from direct heat.

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o Roasting
Fish is usually portioned, lightly covered with oil and roasted in an oven in the usual way.
ii. Beef
iii. Mutton
iv. Chicken
v. Pork
vi. Camel
 Salads
It is a mixture of raw and cold food eg tomato, cucumber, lettuce etc. They are well prepared
to be attractive. They may be presented as a side dish, main course or a dessert. They can be
served for lunch, tea, dinner and snacks.
Classification of salads;
Simple salad; it contain one type of ingredients usually combined with a dressing. For
example tomato salad with vinegar dressing.
Compound salad; it contain more than one type of salad usually combined with a dressing.
They are mostly made from vegetables and fruits.
There are different types of salads.
 Appetizer
They stimulate appetite
 Accompaniment
Are served as an accompaniment to the main dishes.
 Separate course
Served as a light salad after the main course to cleanse palate after rich diner or lunch and to
refresh the appetite and provide a pleasant break before dessert salad.
 Dessert salad
They are usually sweet and may contain items such as fruits, jelly and cream.
Point of care for salads
o All raw salad vegetables should be washed and drained thoroughly.
o Remove the excess moisture from the leaves by using clean towel or colander for draining.
o Store covered in the fridge to retain freshness
o They have to be fresh and colourful in their appearance
o Salad greens should not be dressed until they are ready to be served as the acid in the dressing
will begin to cook the greens causing them to rapidly deteriorate.
The basic parts of a salad
1) Base or underliner
Salads should have bases. Lettuce acts as a base of many salads.
2) Body
It is the main part of salad eg cucumber
3) Dressing
It is a seasoned liquid or a semi liquid that is added to the body of salad to give it added
flavor.
Guidelines for arranging salads
 Keep the salad off the rim of the plate
 Strive for a good balance of colours
 Cut the ingredients simple
 Keep it simple
 Dessert
It is a sweet food item served as the last course of a meal. It includes, cake and pastry.

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 Beverages
They are drinks that are consumed excluding water. They include tea, coffee, milk, juice,
beer or soft drinks.
 Bread and cake
They are prepared by baking method.
FOOD STORAGE
Storage facilities should be kept clean.
All foods should be kept under strict temperature control in hygienic conditions until they are
required for preparation.
A good store should be cool and face the north direction so that it does not come into direct
contact with sun rays.
Must be well ventilated, vermin proof and free from bacteria.
Store should have shelves that are easy to clean.
There should be enough well arranged storage space which should be sectioned for different
types of food e. g cold rooms, deep freeze cabinets etc
When foods are cheap they should be stored for a long time so as to be used during scarcity
in storage facilities like cold room and freezers.
 Perishable foods
They are food that goes bad quickly.
o Vegetables and fruits are stored in a cool dry place especially in refrigerators. Leafy
vegetables should be wrapped in moist cloth. Check vegetables dairy and discard the spoilt
ones.
Do not wash fruits before storing as they spoil fast.
o Meat, poultry and fish are wrapped with aluminum foil and stored in deep freezers.
o Bread should be kept in airtight containers. Here they remain fresh longer than in the
refrigerator.
o Milk-boil and keep in a cool place or in a refrigerator.
Never mix old with fresh milk.
Keep away from strong smelling foods like onions.
o Eggs- never wash eggs before storing.
Store with pointed ends facing downwards.
Eggs should be stored under refrigeration, in a cool dry place or in a basket in an airy room.
o Cake and biscuits should be stored in airtight tins
o Spices-dry, airtight tins or bottles.
o Oils - airtight containers
o Onion, potato-wire baskets
o Processed foods e. g jam- dry cool and dark place. Always keep tins and bottles closed.
o Bottled and canned foods may be refrigerated once opened since they may not withstand
normal conditions.
Never mix commodities especially those with strong flavours e g onions, fish etc with those
that absorb smell like bread, milk and eggs.
 Non-perishable foods
They are food that can be stored for a longer time I e several months.
Cereals and pulses e. g rice, beans-stored in a clean, dry and airtight containers.
Sugar, coffee, tea- stored in clean, dry and airtight containers. Tea should be stored in a dark
place.
Inspect stock regularly especially cereals to check for sign of mice and weevils
 Food preservatives

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They prevent foods from becoming spoilt. The natural ones include turmeric, dry neem
leaves, salt and vinegar while synthetic ones include chemicals, alcohol and acid.

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2. HEALTH AND SANITATION
 Personal hygiene
It is essential to help prevent food borne diseases.
Germs found in or on the body may be transferred onto anything in which the body comes
into contact with.
Personal hygiene includes;
Body
 Personal cleanliness- unclean or sick persons should not handle foods
 Bathing-it is important to take a shower every day; otherwise germs can be transferred onto
clothes and so onto food particularly during warm weather.
 Hands- must be washed thoroughly and frequently particularly after using the toilet, before
commencing work and during handling of food. They should be washed in hot water with a
nail brush and antibacterial soap. They should then be rinsed and dried on a clean towel or by
hand hot air drier.
 Fingernails-they should always be kept clean and short. This is because dirt can easily lodge
under the nails and be dislodged when eg making pastry so introducing bacteria into food.
Nails should be cleaned with a nail brush and nail varnish should not be worn.
 Hair-should be washed regularly and kept covered where food is handled. If not covered, it
may come out or shed dandruff which may fall into food. Men’s hair should be kept short as
it is easier to clean and also looks neat.
 Nose-it should not be touched when food is been handled. If a handkerchief is used the hands
should be rinsed after.
 Mouth-there are many germs in the area around the mouth. Therefore the mouth and the lips
should not be touched by hands. No cooking utensils should be used for tasting food nor
should finger be used for this purpose as germs may be transferred to food.
 Ears-holes should not be touched while in the kitchen as this may transfer the germs.
 Teeth-they should be kept clean and visit to the dentist should be regular so that the teeth can
be kept in good conditions.
 Feet- as food handlers’ stand for many hours, air of feet is important. They should be washed
regularly and toe nails kept short and clean.
Clothing- clean and white undercloth should be worn all the times. Dirty clothes enable
germs to multiply; if dirty clothing comes into contact with food it will be contaminated.
Outdoor clothing and other clothing which has been taken off before wearing white should be
kept in a locker away from kitchen. The clothes should be protective, washable, light in
weight, comfortable, strong and absorbent.
 Spitting-it should never occur as it spreads germs.
 Cosmetics-Should be used in moderation, but the food handlers should be discouraged. They
should be used on clean skin but not to cover dirt.
 Cuts, burns and sores- they should be covered with water proof dressing. Where wound is
septic there are harmful bacteria which should not be allowed to get onto food. People
suffering on this should not handle food.
 General health and fitness- should have adequate sleep, fresh air, exercise, wholesome food
and pure water.
 Household pests and parasites
Food premises must be free from pest infestation as pest carry diseases and food poisoning
bacteria.
Pests include rodents, insects, ants and birds.
A pest infestation leads to the following;

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Disease transmission
Damage to property and foodstuffs
Contamination of food
Loss of customers
Loss of business
Control
Food premises must be kept clean and in sound condition
Foods should be stored correctly
Always dispose food waste correctly and in hygienic conditions.
No rubbish should be allowed to accumulate outside the building
Dust bins should be covered with tight fitting lids
Use sprays to kill flies
Eliminate the breeding areas
Ensure all potential access are proofed and screened.
Use a recognized pest controller
 Household parasites
Parasites obtain nutrients from hosts.
The effects of parasite on the host animal are:
 Sucking blood.
 Damaging the organs of the host.
 Cause irritation on the skin of the host.
 Transmission of diseases.
 Cause obstruction in body passages.
Types of Parasites
There are two types of parasites:
 External (ecto-parasites)
 Internal (endo-parasites)
External parasites are;
o Lice
o Fleas
Internal parasites are;
o Tapeworm- they are obtained by eating uncooked meat.
Control of Tapeworms
 Meat should be well cooked before eating.
 Deworm at least after every 3 months
 Meat inspection by meat inspectors/ veterinary officers.
 Use of pit latrines by man.
o Roundworm- These are the largest of the human and the most common parasite in humans.
Roundworms are common in warm areas especially in areas where the standards of hygiene
and sanitation are low. .
Prevention of worms
Practicing high standards of cleanliness and hygiene such as use of latrines.
Deworm at least after every 3 months
Wash hands before handling foods.
 Communicable disease
They are those diseases that are transferred either directly or indirectly from one individual to
another.
o Airborne disease

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They are diseases that are transmitted through the respiratory tract. They can be spread
through direct contact with infected person, being in contact with discharges from the nose
and mouth of an infected person or through utensils. Transmission can be greatly reduced by
practicing social and respiratory etiquette. Staying home when ill, keeping close contact with
an ill person to a minimum, allowing a few feet distance from others while ill, and wearing a
mask, covering coughs and sneezes with elbow or tissue can greatly reduce transmission.
Good hand washing can decrease spread of germ-containing droplets that could be picked up
on hands from surfaces or hand contact with secretions.
Airborne diseases include;
a) Whooping cough
 Whooping cough is an acute infection of respiratory tract.
 The disease is more common in children under the age of five but adults may also be
affected.
Causes
 It is caused by bacteria called Bordetella pertusis and is usually spread by droplets produced
when a sick person coughs.
Symptoms:
 Severe coughing and frequent vomiting.
 Thick sticky mucus is produced.
 Convulsions in some cases.
Prevention
 Children may be immunised against whooping cough by means of a vaccine.
Treatment
 Antibiotics are administered.
 To reduce the coughing, the patient should be given drugs.
b) Tuberculosis
Tuberculosis is a contagious disease that results in destruction of the lung tissue.
Causes
 Tuberculosis is caused by the bacterium called Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
Mode of transmission
 Human tuberculosis is spread through droplet infection i.e., in saliva and sputum.
 Tuberculosis can also spread from cattle to man through contaminated milk.
 From a mother suffering from the disease to a baby through breast feeding.
The disease is currently on the rise due to the lowered immunity in persons with HIV and
AIDS (Human Immunodeficiency Virus).
Tuberculosis is common in areas where there is dirt, overcrowding and malnourishment.
Symptoms
 Chronic cough. Sometimes sputum contains blood.
 Loss of weight
 Fever
 Fatigue
 Loss of appetite
Prevention
 Proper nutrition with a diet rich in proteins and vitamins to boost immunity.
 Isolation of sick persons reduces its spread.
 Pasteurization of milk.
 Utensils used by the sick should be sterilised by boiling.
 Avoidance of crowded places and living in well ventilated houses.

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 Immunisation with B.C.G. vaccine gives protection against tuberculosis. This is done a few
days after birth with subsequent boosters.
Treatment
Treatment is by use of antibiotics.
c) Common cold
Symptoms
A tickling sensation in the throat
Chills
Cough and running nose
Prevention
Personal hygiene especially when coughing and sneezing.
d) Pneumonia
 Pneumonia is infection resulting in inflammation of lungs.
 The alveoli get filled with fluid and bacterial cells decreasing surface area for gaseous
exchange.
 Pneumonia is caused by bacteria.
 More infections occur during cold weather.
 The old and the weak in health are most vulnerable.
Symptoms
 Pain in the chest accompanied by a fever, high body temperatures (39-40°C).
 General body weakness.
 Cough with greenish yellow sputum.
Prevention
 Maintain good health through proper feeding.
 Avoid extreme cold.
Treatment
 If the condition is caused by pneumococcus bacteria, antibiotics are administered.
 If breathing is difficult, oxygen may be given using an oxygen mask.
e) Mumps
It is an acute bacterial infection.
Symptoms
Fever
Swelling and tenderness of the salivary glands
Prevention
Vaccination
f) Measles
It is a viral infection
Symptoms
Fever
Eruption in the mouth
Dusty red mark runs all over the body.
Prevention
Immunization
o Waterborne diseases
Spread by taking contaminated water and food
Can also be spread by direct or indirect contact with infected person or carrier.
Flies also play a role in its spread.

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Waterborne diseases include;
a) Amoebic dysentery
Cause
 This disease is caused by Entamoeba histolytica.
 The parasites live in the intestinal tract but may occasionally spread to the liver.
 Transmission - They are transmitted through contaminated water and food especially salad
Symptoms –
 Abdominal pain
 A need to have bowel where little or no faeces or just mucous comes out.
 Many loose stool with lots of mucous stained with blood.
 Nausea
 Diarrhoea that comes and goes and sometimes alternate with constipation
The parasites cause ulceration of the intestinal tract, which results in diarrhoea.
Prevention and control
 Proper disposal of human faeces.
 Boiling water before drinking.
 Personal hygiene e.g. washing hands before meals.
 Washing vegetables and steaming particularly salads and fruits before eating.
Treatment
 Treatment of infected people with appropriate drugs.
b) Cholera
 Causative agent is a bacterium called Vibrio cholerae.
 Transmission - It is spread through water and food contaminated by human faeces containing
the bacteria.
The bacteria produce a powerful toxin, enterotoxin that causes inflammation of the wall of
the intestine leading to the following:
Symptoms
 Severe diarrhoea that leads to excessive water loss from body.
 Abdominal pain
 Vomiting
 Dehydration which may lead to death.
Prevention and Control
 Adequate sanitation such as water purification, sewage treatment and proper disposal of
human faeces.
 Public and personal hygiene e.g. washing hands before meals and washing fruits and
vegetables, boiling drinking water.
 Vaccination
 Carriers should be identified, isolated and treated during outbreaks.
Treatment
 Use of appropriate antibiotics.
 Correcting fluid loss by injecting fluids or by administration of oral rehydration solutions.
c) Typhoid fever
 The disease is caused by Salmonella typhi.
 Transmission is through contaminated water and food.
 It is also transmitted by certain foods e.g. oysters, mussels and shell fish.
Symptoms
 High fever
 Muscle pains

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 Headache
 Sore throat and often a dry cough
 Weight loss
 Diarrhoea, vomiting or constipation.
 In severe cases mental confusion may result and death.
Prevention
 Boil drinking water.
 Proper sewage treatment.
 Proper disposal of faeces, if not flushed use deep pit latrines.
 Observe personal hygiene e.g. washing hands before meals.
 Washing fruits and vegetables.
Treatment
Use of appropriate antibiotics.
o PERSONAL CONTACT DISEASES
Contact diseases are transmitted when an infected person has direct bodily contact with an
uninfected person and the microbe is passed from one to the other. Contact diseases can also
be spread by indirect contact with an infected person’s environment or personal items.
They include;
 LEPROSY
Symptoms
Loss of feelings
Paralysis of the limbs
A variety of skin problems
Swollen nerves which are not usually active.
Prevention
Personal cleanliness
Avoid contact with infected persons
 SCABIES
Scabies is a skin infection caused by a mite (a small insect of the spider family).
It is spread by direct contact with an infected person. The mites can survive only a few days
off the body and cannot jump or fly.
Symptoms
A rash with severe itching, mostly at night, is the most common symptom of scabies. In
children, the rash is most likely to appear on the head, neck, palms and soles of the feet, or
between the fingers.
Scabies can be spread from the time a person acquires the mites until 24 hours after treatment
begins.
Prevention or control
 Treat infected children with medications that are effective against mites.
 It might be necessary to treat the other children and caregivers in the child’s group as well as
family members.
 Wash in hot water all washable items that came into contact with the child’s skin 72 hours
prior to treatment. Dry on hot cycle.w
 Place difficult to wash items in tightly closed plastic bags for four days
 Vacuum any carpet or upholstered furniture.
RINGWORM
Ringworm is a fungal infection of the skin and hair. Although ringworm is not serious and is
easily treated, it is unattractive and irritating.

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It is spread by direct contact with infected skin or when a person comes in contact with
contaminated objects. This can include animals, soil, towels, bedding, etc.
Symptoms
The characteristic rash, or ringworm, is round with red or gray scaly patches. The edges may
be raised, reddish and itchy. The center often looks like normal skin. On the scalp, the
infection often begins as a small patch and eventually causes temporary hair loss. It may
progress to patches of scaling and baldness.
What is the period of communicability?
Ringworm can be spread as long as the infected lesions are present.
Prevention or control
 Refer the child to the physician for a diagnosis and treatment.
 An infected child should be excluded only until treatment has begun.
 Parents and staff members should be notified if more than one person develops ringworm.
 The child care should be kept clean, dry and cool, since ringworm fungi grow in a moist,
warm environment.
 Children should not share personal items such as hats, combs, towels or bedding.
 Good personal hygiene should be practiced.
CONJUNCTIVITIS (PINKEYE)
Conjunctivitis is an inflammation of the conjunctiva (membrane covering the eyeball). It can
be caused by either a virus or bacterial infection.
It is spread through direct contact with infected secretions of the eye, nose and throat. It can
also be spread when staff members wash or dry an infected child’s face and use the same
towel on another child.
Symptoms
The most common symptom of conjunctivitis is pink around the white parts of the eyes. The
infected eyes also produce tears and discharge, pus and may itch or be swollen. Often the
child’s eyelids stick together in the morning because of the secretions during sleep.
Pinkeye can be spread until the active infection passes (for viral) or until 24 hours of
treatment (for bacterial).
Prevention or control
 Refer the child to the physician for proper diagnosis, particularly if there is yellow or heavy
eye discharge.
 If pinkeye is caused by a bacterial infection *and requires antibiotic eyedrops, exclude the
child until after treatment begins.
 Use a separate cloth and towel to wash each child’s face.
 Practice good hand washing after every contact with children’s eyes.
 Dispose of contaminated tissues properly.
 Clean with soap and water, and disinfect mouthed toys or toys that come in contact with the
children’s eyes daily or when soiled.
 Keep the child’s eyes wiped free of discharge and wash hands after contact with the child’s
eyes.
 Teach children to wash their hands after wiping their eyes and to try to avoid rubbing their
eyes.
o Personal and environmental hygiene in disease control
o Environmental hygiene. It include;
Sewage treatment
Proper disposal of human faeces.
o Personal hygiene. It include;

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Washing hands before meals
Washing fruits and vegetables
Boiling drinking water
Washing hands after visiting the toilets
 Home nursing
o First aid
First aid is the first treatment given on the spot to an injured person.
Administration of first aid
Shock
It is sign of faintness, sickness and pale face.
The person should be kept comfortable, lying down and warm. The victim should be covered
with blanket or clothing.
Fainting
It may be caused by standing for a long time in a hot, poorly ventilated area.
Signs include whiteness, sweating and flightness.
Treatment;
Raise the leg slightly above the level of the head. After recovering, the person should be put
in a fresh air environment making sure that the person has not injured himself in fainting.
Cuts
They should be covered with a waterproof dressing after washing the injuries and areas round
the cuts.
Bleeding should be stopped as quickly as possible e.g by direct pressure or by bandaging
firmly on the cut.
Also in case of the artery bleeding, it may be stopped by pressing the artery with thumb
against the underlying bone while the bandage is being sought. This should not be allowed to
exceed 15 minutes.
Nose bleeding
The person should be sat down with the head forward. The clothes round the neck and chest
to be loosened and the victim should try to breath through the mouth pinching the soft part of
the nose.
The pressure should be released after 10 minutes warning the person not to blow the nose for
several hours-but if the bleeding has not stopped, exert some pressure for another 10 minutes.
Seek medical attention if the bleeding does not stop within 30 minutes.
Fractures
A person with broken bones should never be moved until the part has been secured and then
medical assistance should be sought.
Burns and scalds
Use slow running water or put the injured part in cool water for at least 10 minutes or until
the pain ceases.
Take the victim to the hospital and avoid adhesive bandage.
Gassing
Do not allow the gassed person to walk, but should be carried into the fresh air. If breathing
has stopped, apply artificial respiration and send him to the doctor.
Artificial respiration-the most effective method is mouth to mouth resuscitation.
Resuscitation is making someone breathe again and become conscious after they have almost
died.

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o Care for the sick
Sickness weakens the body. To gain strength and get well quickly, special care is needed. The
care a sick person receives is frequently the most important part of his treatment.
A sick person needs love and constant encouragement. A person who is sick should rest in a
quiet, comfortable place with plenty of fresh air and light. When they're sick, you can spoil
them a little bit, like giving them a healthy treat, a new CD etc. The person should keep from
getting too hot or cold. If the air is cold or the person is chilled, cover them with a sheet or
blanket. If the room is hot, or the person has a fever, they may need only a light sheet over
them. Fever is the body's way of fighting infection- germs don't like hot temperatures any
more than people do. However, if fever is causing discomfort it can be controlled with
NSAIDS (Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs) or herbal remedies. You can tell if a person
is sick by a thermometer or if they have a hot forehead.
Liquid
In nearly every sickness, especially when there is fever, or diarrhea, the sick person should
drink plenty of liquids which include soup, water, lemon drops and syrup with honey.
Personal Cleanliness
It is very important to keep the sick person clean. The person should be bathed every day. If
they are too sick to get out of bed, wash them with a sponge or cloth with lukewarm water.
The sick person's sheets, clothes, and covers must also be kept clean. If the patient is
infectious and defecates, bleeds, or vomits on sheets, they (the sheets) should be washed with
bleach to stop the spread of viruses.
Good food
A sick person should drink plenty of liquids and eat a lot of nourishing food. If the sick
person feels like eating, let them. Most sicknesses do not require special diets. Chicken
noodle soup would be better because it does not fill the sick person so then they still have an
appetite. But overall, any type of soup that won't give the specific person an allergic reaction
is good. Medicines should be given at appropriate time.
If the person is very weak, give them as much nourishing food as they can eat, many times a
day. If necessary, mash the foods, or make them into soups or juices. If needed, blend the
food so that the sick person doesn't need to chew, if the person is VERY sick.
Soups seem to be a good way to give the person liquids as well as nutrition. A sick person
might not have appetite so delivering as much nutrition as possible in as small a portion as
possible is important.
Make nutritionally fully-rounded soups. This means with carbohydrates and fats, and very
important, soluble and insoluble fiber. Protein can be animal protein (meat including red
meat: fish, white meats such as pork, chicken or turkey, and eggs or egg substitute) or
vegetable protein. Lean meat, poultry, fish, legumes, dairy, eggs, and nuts and seeds are good
sources of protein. Soy-based products such as tofu are also high in protein. Keep in mind
that some of your clients will be vegetarian or vegan- meat eaters can eat vegetables, but
vegetarians/vegans will not eat meat or animal products. Vegetables are good for fiber,
especially peas, broccoli, and corn. There are good fats and not-so-good fats. Fish like salmon
and tuna, as well as certain nuts such as flax seeds (in the form of flaxseed oil) and walnuts
have Omega-3, a good fat. Minimize saturated fats such as butter, bacon, things that are solid
at room temperature. They are hard to digest.
Minimize spices -- some spices might upset their stomachs and cause intestinal distress. Do
not overcook -- heat breaks down vitamins. A daily multi-vitamin can't hurt, either.
If a patient is very ill, they should be somewhere that they can be managed by people with far
more training than you.

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3. CONSUMER EDUCATION
It is a right that protects the consumer from large companies that sell products and services.
 Need for consumer education
o To make us aware of goods and services that are available.
o To know our rights as consumer and the sources of information on products. Therefore an
informed consumer question about a product.
o Able to choose among the alternatives and is aware of his rights thus avoiding being
exploited.
 Rights and responsibilities of the consumer
The law of the country ensures that consumer is not exploited by the business community.
 Find out all the necessary information about buying and legal protection available.
 Be a wise buyer and keep up with prices, know useful outlets, read labels and guarantees,
make the right decisions and take time to shop.
 Present genuine cases of complains but do not be a nuisance in the process of it.
 Be polite to sales people but put your point across.
 Remember buying is spending money, avoid overspending.
 Factors that influence consumer buying
 Available income
 Available goods and services
 Stages of family life
 Influence of friends
 Influence of advertisement
 Customary practices
 Principles of wise buying
Quality;
Inspect carefully the quality of an item before buying.
Quantity required;
Consider the size, style, design and the structure of an item.
Expiry date (shelf life)
Consider the durability of an item.
Price;
Know what you want and the amount of money you want to spend
Window shopping
Avoid impulse buying. Ie buying without a budget.
Factors to consider when buying
Choose the best products and services available at lowest price.
Buy larger packets since it saves time and are cheaper.
The quality of packaging should be good.
The items should be properly sealed especially when buying food stuffs.
For canned, tinned or bottled foods one should check the expiry date.
 Labels and guarantees
1) Labels
Refer to a piece of paper or any other material used for describing what the item has.
It is attached to it for content characteristics and other useful information. It shows the price
of the product, ingredients manufacturing and expiry date.
Advantages

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 They are present at the point of sale and can inform the buyer with information required.
 They are generally close to the truth about the characteristics of an item.
 They are better sources of information.
 They reduce the chances of consumer wasting money on inferior items.
2) Guarantees
Refers to a statement given to a buyer of a product by the seller pointing out certain qualities
or performance characteristics of that product.
It gives assurance on specified remedies action for example repair, refund and replacement
incase the product fails to perform as expected.
 Consumer organizations
They are government and non governmental bodies that protect the interest of consumers.
They include;
o Weight and measures department
This control the weighing machine that give us standard weights in commercial transaction.
o Kenya consumer organization. Roles;
 Fights for fair prices of goods and services
 Helps in judging the quality and value of goods and services
 Make an effort to advocate for the consumers
o Price control department
It supervises price ceilings on certain essential gazette item eg bread, sugar, meat etc.
o KEBS (Kenya Bureau of Standards)
Roles of KEBS. It ensures that;
 High standards of manufacturing are maintained.
 Products have labels indicating the ingredients.
 Textiles produced are of good quality.
 All items have got manufacturing and expiring date.