1. Running head: EFFECT OF WHITE NOISE ON OFF-TASK BEHAVIOR 1
Effect of White Noise on Off- Task Behavior for Students with ADHD
Erin Bosman
University of Wisconsin – Eau Claire
Author Note
Erin Bosman, Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin – Eau Claire.
The current study was conducted as a fulfillment of a paper for University of
Wisconsin – Eau Claire Psychology 390: Advanced Behavior Analysis, supervised by Dr.
Kevin Klatt.
Correspondence concerning this research should be addressed to Erin Bosman,
Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin – Eau Claire, Eau Claire, WI 54701.
Email: bosmanen@uwec.edu

2. EFFECT OF WHITE NOISE ON OFF-TASK BEHAVIOR 2
Abstract
There has been a significant amount of research done on increasing attention in
school, and decreasing off- task behaviors. Particularly, in children with
neurodevelopmental or learning disorders such as Attention Deficit Hyperactivity
Disorder (ADHD). ADHD is often associated with careless mistakes in schoolwork or
other activities, difficulty sustaining attention, and easily distracted (American
Psychiatric Association, 2013). White noise played through headphones was used as a
classroom intervention to reduce off-task for two children with ADHD. Subsequently,
one of the children was taking a stimulant medication for his ADHD.
KEYWORDS ADHD, off-task behavior, white noise, academic performance

3. EFFECT OF WHITE NOISE ON OFF-TASK BEHAVIOR 3
Effect of White Noise on Off- Task Behavior for Students with ADHD
ADHD is often associated with sustaining attention, and being easily distracted or
displaying off-task behaviors (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). The Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention researchers found that less than 1 in 3 children with
ADHD receive both medication treatment and behavioral therapy. According to the CDC,
The preferred treatment approach for children ages 6 and older with ADHD is behavioral
therapy, and recommended before using medical treatment.
CDC Researchers found that approximately forty three percent of children are
treated with medication alone, and only thirteen percent are treated with behavioral
therapy alone ("Key Findings," 2016). Stimulant medication has been shown to appear to
improve behavioral symptoms and academic performance in individuals with ADHD
(Mcinnes, Bedard, Hogg-Johnson, & Tannock, 2007). However, as previously stated
behavioral therapy should be attempted first, or concurrently with medication. The
purpose of this study is to observe the effect of noise on academic performance for
individuals with ADHD, as a potentially effective behavioral treatment, that can be used
either independently or concurrently with stimulant medication. This expands on prior
research that has focused either specifically on individuals taking stimulant medication or
individuals with no medication, rather than comparing them concurrently. White noise is
described as a continuous sound from 20 to 20,000 Hz (Cook, Bradley-Johnson, and
Merle Johnson, 2014). Various studies have shown that noise appears to positively effect
on-task behavior for individuals with ADHD.
According to Söderlund, Sikström, and Smart (2007), stochastic resonance is the
idea that an optimal amount of noise under certain circumstances may be beneficial for

4. EFFECT OF WHITE NOISE ON OFF-TASK BEHAVIOR 4
cognitive performance. These researchers observed participants self-performance on both
a high memory and low memory task in the presence of or absence of white noise. Their
research showed that noise appears to lead to a positive significant effect of cognitive
performance for individuals with ADHD. However, noise appeared to have a negative
effect for individuals that did not have ADHD. They explained their research by
concluding that the results showed stochastic resonance. This was the first study to
specifically look into stochastic resonance for individuals with ADHD and the
researchers considered a variety of limitations. The researchers recommend that further
researchers examine more levels of noise, measure dopamine levels, and look into the
interaction between noise and medication.
Söderlund, Sikström, Loftesnes, and Sonuga-Barke (2010) advanced research by
examining the effects of background white noise on memory performance for inattentive
school children. Focusing on fifty-one secondary school aged children, they hypothesized
that a moderate amount of noise would enhance the performance of inattentive children,
but decrease the performance of attentive children, showing stochastic resonance similar
to the previously discussed study by Söderlund, Sikström, and Smart (2007). They
rejected the null hypothesis, as previous research in the area has done.
Focusing primarily on extra task stimulation with academic task performance for
children with ADHD Abikoff, Courtney, Szeibel, and Koplewicz (1996) used 3 levels of
extra task stimulation- high stimulation (music), low stimulation (speech), and no
stimulation (silence). Their research resulted in the conclusion that auditory stimulation
did not negatively affect participants with disabilities, or in the control group. It did
appear to benefit the academic performance of those with ADHD, while nondisabled

5. EFFECT OF WHITE NOISE ON OFF-TASK BEHAVIOR 5
participants performed similarly under all 3 conditions. This experiment focused on
arithmetic tasks and suggests that further research evaluates the influence of visual and
auditory factors, novelty of distractors, task content, difficult level, length of the task, and
presence or absence of the experimenter.
Cook, Johnson, and Bradley-Johnson (2015) observed the effects of white noise
on problem behaviors for a child with ADHD. They observed the participant while
listening to white noise, while taking stimulant medication, and while both listening to
white noise and taking stimulant medication. They found that off-task behavior decreased
for the individual in all three conditions. Off task behaviors decreased by 45% when both
white noise and stimulant medication were used concurrently. Limitations with this study
were that it only had one participant, the study ended when the school year ended, but
could have used a final phase, and the participant’s teacher found the intervention to be
difficult to implement.
Cook, Bradley-Johnson, and Merle Johnson (2014) focused on the effects of
white noise on off task behavior for students with ADHD. They observed 3 participants
who had been diagnosed with ADHD, all in different classes. They all were also taking
stimulant medications. The researchers used an ABCAC design: Baseline (A),
headphones with no white noise (B), and headphones with white noise (C). The results
showed that white noise appeared to result in lower levels of off-task behavior.
Concluded limitations were that some conditions were changed before previous phases
were stabilized, a functional analysis could have been helpful to determine the function of
the effects of white noise, the study could have looked at individuals who are not on
medication as well, and it could include other interventions commonly used instead of

6. EFFECT OF WHITE NOISE ON OFF-TASK BEHAVIOR 6
white noise.
The present study, a systematic replication of Cook, Bradley-Johnson, and Merle
Johnson (2014) focuses on students with ADHD. Cook, et al. (2014) focused only on
students with ADHD taking stimulant medication. The aim of this study is to extend
research by looking into the effect of white noise on students with ADHD that are taking
medication and those that are not taking medication. This study also adds an additional
variable of instrumental music to compare with white noise.
Method
Participants and Setting
Participants included two students who had been diagnosed with ADHD. Both
participants attended a public school. Both students were in the same third grade class,
with a class size of 25 students. All were struggling academically. John had been
prescribed stimulant medication. One participant was taking stimulant medication, and
one was not. John was prescribed 7.5 mg of Adderall while the other participant, Ben,
had not been prescribed medication. Medication for John was administered before school,
and dosage remained constant across all phases. All sessions were conducted in the
participants’ classroom while they worked on independent homework assignments.
Equipment
White noise generators were used to generate the white noise used to increase
participant’s focus. Volumes were calibrated by an audiology technician and were
recalibrated during the study with a portable decibel reader (Tenma Sound Level Meter,
Model 72–935). For the first type of behavioral intervention, white noise was delivered

7. EFFECT OF WHITE NOISE ON OFF-TASK BEHAVIOR 7
through Sony MDR-E818LP Fontopia headphones. The teacher's computer and speakers
was used to play the instrumental music, for the second type of behavioral intervention.
Dependent Variables and Measurement
Off-task behavior was operationally defined as talking to another student or the
teacher about something unrelated to the assignment, standing or walking while not
attending to the task, and looking at something other than the assignment or turning their
head away from the task. Observers recorded off-task behavior for approximately 15
minutes, unless the student finished the assignment early, during an independent
homework assignment 3 days per week. Therefore, Session durations averaged 15 min
for both John and Ben. Observers began to record off-task behavior at the beginning of
the participant’s assignments and stopped after the 15 minutes were complete.
For each assignment, a response product in the form of a completed worksheet
was generated to generate interobserver agreement. The teacher and experimenter
recorded the total number of task items, the number of items completed, and the number
of items completed correctly on the assignment. These data were summarized as the
percentage of items completed and the percentage answered correctly.
Procedure and Design
An ABCDACD single subject design was used. During baseline (A), no
headphones or white noise was presented. During Condition B, headphones only (no
white noise) were presented. Condition B was primarily to allow participants to adjust to
wearing the headphones. During Condition C (headphones plus white noise),
implemented the first type of behavioral intervention. White noise was delivered through
the headphones. During Condition D (music), the second type of behavioral intervention

8. EFFECT OF WHITE NOISE ON OFF-TASK BEHAVIOR 8
was implemented. Instrumental music was delivered through speakers on the teacher's
computer throughout the classroom. Prior to conducting the experiment, the experimenter
gave the teacher's instructions on how to effectively operate equipment and implement
the experiment. To reduce possible stigma, the teacher instructed students not to touch
the white noise generators or the computer as well as describing white noise and the
potential benefits of white noise of music in the classroom. The researcher then allowed
everyone in the class an opportunity to listen to white noise through the headphones.
During Conditions B (headphones only) and C (headphones plus white noise),
white-noise generators were placed under each participant’s desks. However, the
generators were turned on only during Condition C. Participants wore headphones during
Conditions B and C until assignment completion or the end of the 15-minute period. The
white noise could be heard only by the participants who wore the headphones and not by
other students in the classroom.
Throughout each condition, tape was placed over the volume dials to prevent
participants or other classmates from adjusting volume levels. Participants were required
to keep the headphones on throughout the entire task during condition B and condition C.
During condition D, instrumental music was played through speakers on the teacher’s
computer at a low level. During all conditions, the teacher managed their class as usual.
After the teacher passed out the worksheets, no further instruction or vocal prompt was
delivered.
Results
Figure 1 depicts the percentage of intervals of off-task behavior for John and Ben.
For all participants, off-task behavior during the headphones plus white-noise condition

9. EFFECT OF WHITE NOISE ON OFF-TASK BEHAVIOR 9
was lower than those during the baseline, headphones-only condition, and the music
condition. Off-task behavior was also lower during the music condition than it was during
the headphones-only or baseline condition. However, off task behavior decreased the
most during the white-noise condition. Results indicated that both these students
displayed lower levels of off-task behavior while they listened to white noise, suggesting
that this noise can reduce off-task behavior for students with ADHD on stimulant
medication and students with ADHD who are not prescribed medication.
Interobserver agreement was collected. Agreement was calculated by dividing the
number of intervals that both observers recorded off-task behavior by the total number of
intervals observed and converting the result into a percentage. Overall mean interobserver
agreement was 94%. Mean item-by-item agreement between the teacher and the observer
was 98%.
Discussion
Based on the results of this study and when taking in consideration the results of
past studies, it appears that white noise may be a useful option for individuals with
ADHD. It may be an effective option for several reasons. A significant reason for white
noise to be used for intervention is that it can be easily implemented in classrooms or at
home with little attention from the child's teacher or guardian. As discussed previously, it
is preferred that behavioral intervention is attempted either before or concurrently with
medication and white noise appears to be an effective form of behavioral intervention,
based both on this study and prior research. In addition, white noise also can be used both
at home and in public settings, making it a highly convenient form of behavioral
intervention.

10. EFFECT OF WHITE NOISE ON OFF-TASK BEHAVIOR 10
The results of this study, a systematic replication of Cook, Bradley-Johnson, and
Merle Johnson (2014) did not replicate the results exactly, but were similar. Cook, et al.
(2014) focused only on students with ADHD taking stimulant medication. I had one
participant taking stimulant medication, and one who did not. Another difference in my
study was the added condition of instrumental music. Limitations in prior research
discussed that future researchers should compare different types of participants, as well
as different behavioral interventions which lead to my decision to primarily change these
two things. Cook, et al. (2014) used three children who were in different classes, and all
taking stimulant medication. I used two children, all in the same class and only one of
them was prescribed medication.
The results for Cook, et al. (2014) found that the percentage of items completed
were consistent across participants, and for all conditions. However, results did indicate
that white noise appeared to result in less off-task behavior for all individuals. This
systematic replication of Cook, et al. has similar results, but expands research by
comparing an additional behavioral intervention (Condition D) with white noise as well
as having one participant not taking medication. The results for this replication indicate
that both behavioral interventions of white noise and instrumental music lowered the
amount of off-task behavior for individuals with ADHD. However, White noise appeared
to lower the amount of off-task behavior more significantly than instrumental music did.
This research extended previous research on noise as an effective behavioral
intervention however, further research can expand on the topic as there are a variety of
limitations with this study. Future research could benefit from using a larger sample size;
the more participants that the intervention is effective for, the more reliable it is. The

11. EFFECT OF WHITE NOISE ON OFF-TASK BEHAVIOR 11
current study only used two participants. The design type may make it difficult for a large
sample size, but future research could try to include at least six participants, three
prescribed with stimulant medication and three without medication. Furthermore, it could
be beneficial to look into more forms of behavioral intervention in comparison with white
noise. The current study focused on both white noise and music as potential behavioral
interventions, but it could be useful to compare with other common interventions as well.
In conclusion, results of this study indicate that white noise and music are both
effective behavioral interventions for children with ADHD. However, white noise does
appear to be slightly more effective than music. Both participants, were more attentive
and showed less off-task behaviors during intervention phases compared with baseline
data whether or not they were taking stimulant medication. This signifies that this is an
effective behavioral intervention both used singularly and used concurrently with
stimulant medication.

12. Running head: Effect of White Noise on Off- Task Behavior 12
Figure 1. Percentage of intervals off-task for John and Ben.
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