Qualitative

1. Research Type On the Basis of
Nature, Qualitative
Chanak Trikhatri

2. Qualitative Research
• Qualitative research involves the studied use and collection of
a variety of empirical materials - case study, personal
experience, introspective, life story, interview, observational,
historical, interactional, and visual texts-that describe routine
and problematic moments and meanings in individuals lives.
• Organize a wide range of interconnected methods, hoping
always to get a better fix on the subject matter at hand.

3. Contd….
• ‘Qualitative Research…involves finding out what
people think, and how they feel - or at any rate,
what they say they think and how they say they
feel. This kind of information is subjective. It
involves feelings and impressions, rather than
numbers’
• Qualitative Researchers study “things” (people
and their thoughts) in their natural settings,
attempting to make sense of, or interpret,
phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring
to them.

4. Qualitative Research
• is not generalizable / is “anecdotal”
• The sample is too small to say anything / is not
a random sample / not representative
• the researcher’s presence in the setting biases
the results
• lacks rigor, procedure is unsystematic

5. Theoretical Approach
Deductive Theoretical Approach : Seek to use
existing theory to shape the approach which you
adopt to the qualitative research process and to
aspects of data analysis
Inductive Theoretical Approach : Seek to build up
a theory which is adequately grounded in a
number of relevant cases. Referred to as
Interpretative and Grounded Theory

6. Uses of QRA
• Qualitative research is used to gain insight into people's
attitudes, behaviors, value systems, concerns, motivations,
aspirations, culture or lifestyles.
• Qualitative researchers aim to gather an in-depth
understanding of human behavior and the reasons that
govern such behavior.
• Qualitative research is often associated with naturalistic
inquiry.

7. Uses QRA Contd….
• Naturalistic methods of inquiry attempt to deal with the issue
of human complexity by exploring directly.
• Naturalistic inquiry always takes place in the natural settings
(field).
• Naturalistic studies result in rich, in-depth information that
has the potential to elucidate the multiple dimensions of
complicated phenomenon.
• The qualitative method investigates
the why and how of decision making, not just what,
where, when.
• The qualitative researcher is interested in illumination and
understanding rather than causal determination or prediction.

8. Purpose of Qualitative Research
The purpose of qualitative research is to describe, explore, and explain
phenomena being studied. Qualitative research questions often take the
form of what is this? or what is happening here? and are more concerned
with the process rather than the outcome ( Ploeg, 1999)
o Better understanding of a phenomenon and gain new perspectives.
o Explore in-depth information that can’t be conveyed quantitatively.
o Provide rich descriptions of complex phenomena.
o Explore sensitive topics
o Explore the issues of difficult to access groups / subcultures
o Explore culturally defined experiences
o Track unique/unexpected events
o Illuminate experience and interpretation
o Gives voice to those rarely heard.

9. Characteristics of QLRA
• Takes place in the natural setting
• Uses multiple methods that are interpretive
• Emergent rather than tightly prefigured
• Interpretive (role of researcher as interpreter)
• Portrait social phenomena holistically
• Systematically reflects subject inquiry
• Sensitive to personal biography and how it shapes the study
• Uses complex multifaceted, iterative, and simultaneous
• Detail exploration of phenomena.

10. Comparison Between QN & QL Research
Concept Quantitative Research Qualitative Research
General
framework
• Seek to confirm hypotheses
• Positivist paradigm
• Seek to explore phenomena
• Naturalistic paradigm
Objectives
• To predict & control • To understand (what, how, &
why)
Tools
• Highly structured methods:
questionnaires, surveys, and
structured observation
• Use semi-structured methods:
in-depth interviews, focus
groups, and participant
observation
Design
• Rigid design
• Controlled & experimental
• Emergent design

11. Comparison Between QN and QL Research conti.
Concepts
• Quantitative Research • Qualitative Research
Focus
• Prediction
• Outcomes
• Generalizability
• Rich “thick” description
• Similarities & contrasts
• Process & context
Sampling
• Relatively large samples
using often random sampling
• Small samples using purposive,
convenient or snow ball
sampling technique.
Nature of
data analysis
• Statistical • Non-statistical
Nature of
Report
writing
• Identified variables and its
outcomes are measured
statistically
Narrative description of the
proposed phenomena.

12. Common Qualitative Research Methods
• Observation - Most sensitive method, three most common methods
are:
• Participant observation: peripheral membership, active membership
& complete membership.
This method is appropriate for collecting data on naturally
occurring behaviors in their usual contexts.
• In-depth interviews
Optimal for collecting data on individuals’ personal histories,
perspectives, and experiences, particularly when sensitive topics
are being explored.
• Focus groups
Effective in eliciting data on the cultural norms of a group and in
generating broad overviews of issues of concern to the cultural
groups or subgroups represented.

13. Common Methods of Data Collection
 Semi structured interviews
 In-depth interviews
 Focus Group Discussions
 Ethnography
 Participatory Action Research
 Narrative Life History
 Participant Observation

14. Additional Methods of Data Collection
• Simple observation
• Document analysis (written records)
• Audio-visual
• Text analysis / Discourse analysis/ diaries
• Case studies
• Therapeutic play
• Material culture
• Auto-ethnography (object, subject and
researcher)

15. Sampling in Qualitative Research Approaches
Sampling methods used in qualitative research are:
1.Purposive sampling
2.Quota sampling, and
3.Snowball sampling
4.Convenient

16. Process in Qualitative Research
An Iterative
Approach
(Inductive
Analysis)
1) research
topic/questions
2) sampling, site
selection
3) data gathering
4) analysis
5) write-up
4) more analysis
Field work

17. QLR Process
Conceptualizing and Planning
o Generally begin with a broad area to be studied.
o Identify a site for data collection.
o Make preliminary contacts with key actors in the selected
site to ensure cooperation and access to informants
o In qualitative research, the research design is often referred
to as emergent design- a design that emerges during the
course of data collection.
o Audio-taping or videotaping interviews with informants.

18. QLR Processes Contd….
o Data collection
o Data analysis
o Interpretation
o These processes take place in an interactive fashion.
o The investigator starts data collection by talking with
or observing a few people who have first-hand
experience of the phenomenon under study.

19. Ground Theory

20. Introduction
The grounded theory, which has its roots in
sociology, seeks to describe and understand the key
social psychological and structural processes that
occur in a social setting. Grounded theory was
developed in the 1960s by two sociologists, Barney
Glaser and Anselm Strauss. The focus of most
grounded theory studies is on a developing social
experience the social and psychological stages and
phases that characterize a particular event or episode.

21. Defining Grounded Theory
• ‘The discovery of theory from data – systematically obtained
and analyzed in social research’ (Glaser & Strauss, 1967)
• The systematic generation of theory from systematic research;
a set of rigorous research procedures leading to the emergence
of conceptual categories
• Grounded theory, an important method for the study of
nursing phenomena, has contributed to the development of
many middle-range nursing theories.
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22. 22
The Purpose of Grounded Theory
• The purpose of grounded theory research in any
discipline is to develop new concepts and theories
of basic phenomena, where these concepts and
theories are firmly grounded in qualitative data
• Purpose is to develop to theory about
phenomenon of interest should be grounded or
rooted in observation
• Allows researcher to seek out and conceptualize
latent social patterns and structures through
constant comparisons
Grounded theory

23. l 23
Steps Grounded Theory Study
• Decide if Grounded Theory design best addresses
the research problem
• Identify a process to study
• Seek approval and access
• Conduct theoretical sampling
• Code the data
• Use selective coding and develop the theory
• Validate your theory
• Write a grounded theory research report

24. Methods
• Interview
• Field note
• Documents
• Observation
• Participatory observation
• Literature
• Journals

25. Advantages
of Grounded Theory
–It encourages systematic, detailed analysis of
the data and provides a method for doing so
–It gives researchers ample evidence to back up
their claims
–It is especially useful for describing repeated
processes e.g. the communications processes
between nurses and patients, or the
communications processes between
information systems analysts and users
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26. Disadvantages of Grounded
Theory
–First time users can get overwhelmed at the
coding level
–Open coding takes a long time
–Because it is a detailed method, it can be
difficult to see the bigger picture

27. Phenomenology

28. Introduction
The term ‘phenomenology’ is partly derived
from the Greek word phainomenon (plural:
phainomena). Phainmenon literally means
‘appearance’, that is, ‘that which shows itself’.
Philosophers generally define ‘phenomena’ to
mean ‘the appearances of things, as contrast
with the things themselves.
Phenomenology is both a philosophical
movement and method.

29. Contd…
• Phenomenology belongs to the branch of
philosophy which gives more emphasis on the
social behaviors.
• A phenomenological research study is a study
that attempts to understand people's
perceptions, perspectives and understandings
of a particular situation (or phenomenon).

30. Contd…
• Phenomenology: the study of structures of
experience, or consciousness.
• A philosophy or method of inquiry based on
the premise that reality consists of objects and
events as they are perceived or understood in
human consciousness.

31. Edmund Husserlt 1901
• Father of phenomenology
• The “science of being”
• Every certainty is questionable
• Believed scientific method & naturalistic
thinking was overvalued and, “not
important to understanding behavior based
on consciousness.” In short, can conduct a
science of perceptions
• Consciousness is where you will find ‘true’
meaning behind actions

32. Methodoloty
A phenomenological study often involves the four steps
of:
• Bracketing: Bracketing is the process of identifying
and holding in preconceived beliefs and opinions that
one may have about the phenomenon that is being
researched.
• Intuiting: It is a process where the researchers need
to deeply immerse in to the data set for generating
actual meaning from the perceived experiences of the
respondents

33. Contd…
• Analyzing: The researchers need to be very attentive as well
as empathetic while collecting information from the
respondents, so that during data analysis process, they can
identify the essence of the phenomena based on the reported
subjective experiences of the respondents.
• Describing: Researchers need to report the essence of the
experiences in narrative description, by revealing the clear
explanation of respondents lived experiences. The researchers
need to provide a meaningful explanation of the phenomena so
that the identified critical elements portrays clear
understanding of what it is like to be in such situation.

34. Data Collection Method
The data collection tools that are most often used are:
• In-depth Interviews/speech
• Diaries/written field note/ keeping memos
• Drawings/non-verbal
• Observation/visual
• Postal questionnaires
• Email dialogue
• Focus groups
• recording the interviews using video/tape
06/21/16 34phenomenological research

35. Advantages of Phenomenology
• Efficient and Economical (only in terms of data generation or maybe not at
all. . .)
• Direct Interaction with Participants
• Data is in the participants’ own words
• Synergy: participants react to and build upon the responses of other
participants.
• Flexible research tool
• Results are easy to understand (in terms of people’s direct opinions and
statements)
• in-depth understanding of individual phenomena.
• Presents narrative description of the events
• Portraits empirical evidences
• Help to adjust new issues and ideas as they emerge
• Contribute to the development of new theories
• Gathers data which is seen natural rather than artificial

36. Disadvantages of Phenomenology
• Findings are difficult to generalize to a larger population
• Data is often difficult to analyze and summarize.
• Researcher may give too much credit to the results (immediacy of a
personal opinion)
• Requires a quality moderator
• Phenomenology cant describe the unique experiences and make
generalizations about the experiences at the same time.
• Experience as observer, must occasionally fill in blanks, which could
lead to inaccuracies
• Subjectivity of the data leads to difficulties in establishing reliability
and validity of approaches and information.
• Difficult to detect or to prevent researcher induced bias.
• Does not produce generalisable data as the samples are generally very
small
• Difficult to replicate , being a descriptive experience
• Recall biases, as past information are collected in most of the situations

37. Phenomenology

38. Introduction of Ethnography
• Anthropologist Clifford Geertz invented the 1970s
• Ethnography is a type of cultural inquiry that involves
the description and interpretation of cultural behaviour.
• It involves collection and analysis of the data about the
cultural groups.
• Rich and holistic study of culture under study.
• It provides health belief and health practices of the
culture.
• It helps to understand the behaviour affecting health and
illness.

39. Definition
• It is the approach developed with the view of understanding
the behaviour of the people in the natural setting in relation to
their culture.
• Leninger (1985) defines ethnography as “ the systematic
process of observing, analyzing, detailing, describing,
documenting lifeways or particular pattern of culture ( or
subculture) inorder to grasp the lifeways or patterns of the
people in their familiar environment.
• The ethnographers listen and record the voices of the
informants with the intent of generating a cultural portrait.
• The end purpose of ethnographic method is the development
of cultural theories.

40. Methodology
• The ethnographers should pose the research question that is
related to how cultural knowledge, norms, values and other
contextual variables influence other’s health and well being.
• In this approach the ethnographers needs to bracket their
known facts inorder to prevent the personal biases.

41. Contd.....
• The five steps to be followed while conducting the
ethnographic study are:
a) Identifying the phenomenon
b) Structuring the study
c) Gathering the data
d) Analyzing the data
e) Describing the findings

42. Sources/ Methods of Data
Collection
Observation
In-depth interview
Record charts
Other types of physical evidence like photographs,
diaries, letters)

43. Advantages
• More ecological validity
• Respect for complexity of human activity
• Design for human needs; reflect users’ own issues and everyday
problems
• Cheaper to do it
• Rich data, non-reductive
• Direct observation of events, practice rather than reliance only on self-
report
• Understanding behaviour, tacit knowledge
• In-Depth understanding of a culture amongst a group of people
(detailed and more likely valid interpretations)
• Gives a voice to a culture to express their views, which might not
otherwise be heard
• Influential in creating an understanding among outsiders
• Also may reveal embedded cultural values that were not obvious to the
group

44. Disadvantages
• Extraordinarily time consuming, unpredictable
• Extreme heterogeneity of data can be difficult to analyze,
make sense of
• It can be difficult for some to write up the findings for a
journal article
• Some ethnographical study are costly
• Observation can cause informants to feel self-conscious and/or
to act unnaturally
• Informants can be sensitive to their perceived loss of privacy;
can become “increasingly selective” in cooperating with
researchers.
• Systematic errors that operate…in the mind, in the eye, or in
the hand of the scientist but are not due to uncontrolled
variables that might interact with the subjects’ behavior.

47. References
Joshi, S. (2008). Qualitative Research Approaches for Health
Personnel, (1st
ed.). Kathmandu: Makalu Publication House
Nieswiadomy, R. M(). Foundations of Nursing Research.( 5th
Edition). India: Pearson Education Inc.
Polit , D.F. & Beck, C.T.( 2008). Essentials of nursing
research:appraising evidence for Nursing practice.
Philadelphia:Wilters Khiwer.
Retrieve from, http://research-methodology.net/research-
philosophy/phenomenology/
Retrieve from,
http://www.health.herts.ac.uk/immunology/Qualitative
%20research/phenomenology.htm
Retrieve from,
http://www.uiowa.edu/~c07p331/phenomenology.ppt