The discipline of cartography includes the art, science, technology and commerce of maps. It is a scientific discipline that was developed in the ancient period based on geometry, mathematics, and astronomy. Since then it has undergone a sea change in map making, preservation and user interface.

1. The Discipline of Cartography – philosophical basis and
modern transformations

2. Classical Approach:
…..the art and science of map making.
Traditionally (till the 3rd Quarter of 20th century):
+ compilation, reproduction, preservation,
storage, economics and commerce
Since 1990s:
Art: presentation and graphics with well-defined design, layout,
composure
Science: scale, level and techniques of measurement,
methods of manipulation and analysis,
techniques and processes of perception and visualization,
processes of communication, etc (all real time)

14. Understanding of user requirements
This is absolutely vital to the success of any map! An
effectively designed map is one in which the intended
message is clearly communicated to the map user. This is only
possible by fully understanding what that message is and how
the map is intended to be used.
Consideration of display format
To achieve maximum clarity a map should be designed from
the very beginning with its final display medium in mind.
There are numerous output formats for maps and various
types of media on which they can be disseminated. Each has
its own merits and its own limitations so there needs to be
sound consideration and a valid reason for the choice that is
made.
A clear visual hierarchy
The aim here is to draw attention to certain elements of the
map and push those of less importance further down the
visual plane - although certain features are less important
they may still be required, if not then they should be
removed. This helps the user differentiate between map
features and helps them comprehend the map's message
effectively.

15. Simplicity
Cartography aims to portray spatial information in an
appropriate way in order to transform information into
knowledge. The inclusion of unnecessary information makes
this process less effective and one should always assess
that information’s value to the user against map clutter and
confusion.
Legibility
All map elements need to be legible, meaning that they are
readable, understandable and recognisable. All need to be
large enough and clear enough relative to the viewing scale
and the media on which the final map will be displayed.
Consistency
Consistency provides a map with balance. It enables
features to be perceived as being organised into groups and
it allows maps themselves to belong to a family of products
through a shared identity.

16. Accessibility
Making maps and making geographic data and accompanying
style sheets easily obtainable and usable is imperative to
successful use. Accessibility factors to consider in the design
process include distribution formats, user disabilities, cost and
intuitiveness in use.
Good composition
It concerns the arrangement of all the different visual
elements, from title to the scale bar. It is both how the map is
structured and positioned, and how the map works alongside
any additional information. All elements should work together
to provide a clear and complete understanding to the user.
Their style should also be harmonious or complementary.
Ethics in Cartography: (after Dent's "Thematic Mapping")
1. Always have a straightforward agenda, and have a defining purpose or
goal for each map.
2. Do not intentionally lie with data.
3. Data should not be discarded simply because they are contrary to a
position held by those creating a map.
4. Strive for an accurate portrayal of the data.
5. Avoid plagiarizing; report all data sources.
6. Symbolization should not be selected to bias the interpretation of the
map.

17. Greek civilization started in the Minoan-Mycenaean age (2100-1100 B.C.)
and continued to the fall of the empires of Byzantium and Trebizond in the
15th century.
Within this span of some 3000 years, the main achievements in Greek
Cartography took place from about the 6th Century B.C. to the culminating
work of Ptolemy in the 2nd Century A.D.
This seminal era can be conveniently divided into the following periods:
1. the archaic and classical period (to the 4th CenturyB.C.),
2. the Hellenistic period (4th and 3rd Centuries B.C.),
3. the early Greco-Roman period (2nd Century B.C. to the 2nd
Century A.D.), and
4. the age of Ptolemy (2nd Century A.D.)
CIRCULAR MAPS AND THE FLAT EARTH:
ANAXIMANDER AND HIS SUCCESSORS (6th CENTURY B.C.)
THE IMPACT OF NEW THEORIES ON CARTOGRAPHY FROM 6th – 4th CENTURY
B.C.: PYTHAGORAS, HERODOTUS, AND DEMOCRITUS
THEORY INTO PRACTICE: NEW CELESTIAL GLOBES AND MAPS IN THE 4th
CENTURY B.C.

18. Issues and Concerns of Cartography
…..depiction of earth’s surface
……convenient reduction through scale factor
…..mathematical principles of transformation of 3D Surface onto a 2D Plane
…..orientation through relatively fixed reference directions
…..ground surveying for —
a) building the Geodatic Control Network (GCN)
b) generating the topographic base (tBase)
c) geographical overlaying (GrO)
The GCN provides the geographical framework of the particular space in the
form of rMap or bMap.
The tBase provides the elevation database of that area.
The GrO provides the thematic database attributed to that area, of course.

22. GCN: Map Projections with innumerable probabilities and combinations
of multiple deformations.
requires knowledge base of —
algebra,
co-ordinate geometry,
plane trigonometry,
spherical trigonometry,
geodesy, and
astronomy
tBase: Ground Surveying with Instrumentation
Chain, Plane Table, and Theodolite
GrO: 7 Fundamental Principles of Thematic Mapping after Raisz’s (1962)
principles —
1)…maps are drawn on a predetermined scale
2)…maps are selective
3)…maps emphasize certain of the selective features
4)…maps are symbolized
5)…maps are generalised
6)…maps are lettered, titled and labelled
7)…maps are related to a system of parallels and meridians

23. Types of Maps after Moellering (1980)—
1. A real map is any cartographic product that is directly viewable and
permanent (e.g., conventional sheet map, globe, orthophoto map,
achine-drawn map, plastic relief map and block diagrams),
2. A virtual map (VM-I) is directly viewable as a cartographic image
but has only a transient tangible reality; maps are displayed on a
CRT fall in this category (e.g., CRT map image: refresh, storage
tube, plasma panel, cognitive map or 2-D image),
3. A virtual map (VM-II) has a permanent reality but cannot be
directly viewed as a cartographic object. Spatial data recorded on a
hard copy medium like paper but not as a cartographic image fall in
this category (e.g., gazetteer, anaglyph, traditional field data,
stored hologram, stored fourier transform and laser disk data), and
finally
4. A virtual map (VM-III) has neither visual nor tangible reality. Digital
images on magnetic disks or tapes fall in this category (e.g., digital
memory data, magnetic disk or tape data, video animation, digital
terrain model, and cognitive map with relational geographic data).

24. Current Experiences—
The 1990s witnessed the impact of
Digital Technologies on Cartography.
Digital Cartography played a great
Role in Gulf War.
Its use exploded in GIS Applications
since then.
The 1984 ICA MEET at Perth: A New
Cartography emerged with the
dramatic impact of IT on Traditional
Cartography, known variously as —
Computer Cartography,
Computer Assisted
Cartography,
Digital Cartography,
e-Cartography, etc
A radically new concept of Cartography
emerged.

34. In our domain of Geography, we have witnessed for a while quite some
transitions in—
1) what we do?
2) how we do?
3) how we name it?
The term ‘Cartography’ tends to be replaced by—
GIS,
Geomatics,
Geovisualisation,
GIScience,
Geoinformation,
Visual Analytics,
Geospatial information Management, etc
All these because of the Dramatic Development in Information Technology
that helped the —
extraction, manipulation and visualization of real time data relating
to GCN, tBase and GrO with the click of a mouse.
Precise algorithms developed for rMap / bMap using WGS1984 Datum and
UTM Grids with minimal deformation.
Satellite surveying made mapping the previously inaccessible areas
easy and precise.
Accurate ground surveying on micro scale is replaced by Total Stations and
Differential GPSs

40. Right now, maps are a big news.
Maps are a must-have on smart
phones thanks to the companies like
Google, Apple and Microsoft.
The Trekkers, Mountaineers,
Explorers, Adventurers, Drivers,
Pilots, Navigators ………..all they need
is a correct map they can rely on for
their own individual purposes.
That is why they are very attractive
to many of us.
Hence, the term ‘map’ seems to see
its repeated revival as —
a contemporary, relevant and
attractive term
for
something contemporary,
relevant and attractive.

41. Once again, the Greek Prof. Athanasios Pallikaris (April 2014) in his
seminal article
“Choosing Suitable Map Projections for Worldwide Depiction of Electronic
Charts in ECDIS (Electronic Chart Display and Information Systems)”
Where he compared a number of currently used Map Projections in terms
of —
Qualitative Criteria—
ability to portray the whole globe in a familiar and pleasant view,
visual perception of the relative geographical location between any
two points,
visual perception of the spherical / ellipsoidal shape of the earth
Quantitative Criteria—
amount and distribution of angle distortion
amount and distribution of area distortion
orthodromicity factor or loxodromicity factor
The best choice for Global Depiction of ENCs on the ECDIS Screen is
Loximuthal Projection and not Mercator’s, or Robinson’s, or Miller’s
Projection

42. Areal Deformation
Loximuthal
Angle Distortion: LoximuthalAngle Distortion: Robinson
Areal Deformation
Mercator

43. Loxodromes and Orthodromes
Mercator
Loximuthal

44. It seems as if the term ‘cartography’ is seen differently, often by those
who are the experts, the specialists and closely related to the
domain.
May be it is because it feels like it needs a different name to describe that
the job we are dealing with maps has become different.
Often different technologies and methods are used, something which
demands new and often very complex competences.
How can it then still be named the same?
Is it not necessary that the name describing
what an industry is doing
what an expert in a discipline is doing
needs to somehow reflect these changed circumstances which change
methods and technologies?
Is it not very much needed that I can name what I am doing as something
most modern, complex, contemporary as this will lead to respect,
appreciation and recognition?

45. If I am calling myself a
“cartographer”, being involved in
“cartography”
will this lead to the same respect,
appreciation and recognition,
or, will I rather be associated with
something old-fashioned, out-dated?
It seems as if the term ‘cartography’
is seems to become avoided,
specially by the cartographers
While many of the things being done
under the umbrella of other terms
could easily simply be called
‘cartography’.
Modern cartography is everything we
do in our daily life as a cartographer
or GI Scientist in order
to produce maps, or
to be more precise, to design
cartographic communication process.

46. The role of the map has changed.
Maps used to be artifacts, they had to look
beautiful, well designed, they had to store
information for a long time because it
needed to be used for a long period of time.
In modern cartography, there is an
increasing number of functions to a
map.
Besides its old function of an artifact, a
modern map is also an interface that gives
human users access to information stored in
the map and beyond the map in databases.
The map has therefore the function of a
Table of Structured Information
through spatial attributes.
Hence, the concept of modern cartography
is certainly the ‘Efficient Communication of
Geospatial Information’

47. That’s why a Modern Cartographer needs to be
an interdisciplinary professional.
Apart from the conventional knowledge of map
projection, surveying, map design and layout,
symbolisation and abstraction, it is most
important to know about computer sciences
and also about GIS, photogrammetry, remote
sensing and geodesy.
He has to know about design, art, modelling
and analysis techniques as
well as to be able to adopt new technologies.
All these eventually influence the product that
the cartographer delivers at the end.
It can be viewed in a triangle: art, research
and technology that will make up for the best
cartographic products.
The modern cartographer is in the middle,
better in the heart of the triangle. He is skilled,
trained and able to deal with Geo-data, newest
technologies and design principles.
Cartographer
Art Research
Technology

48. Unfortunately, there are less and less cartographers with those skills
available.
Rather experts of Geo-data handling (lacking design skills) and
programmers (lacking a profound understanding of ‘geo’ or a
mixture of all those) are increasing exponentially in number.
This is due to lack of dedicated education as well as due to the focussing
on particular aspects only.
Those competences and skills to —
handle geo-data,
apply newest technologies of
data management,
data modelling and data dissemination
The ‘language skills’ of designing and communication of
geoinformation in a
most efficient and pleasing way
have made many computer scientists to get interested in
Cartography.

49. In our country, dedicated education in conventional cartography has been
abolished from the academic curriculum of the Universities in general.
Only bits-and-pieces are taught (lacks structured curriculum).
As the popularity of
GIS increased in map making,
remote sensing increased for updated spatial information,
GPS increased for navigation,
satellite-enabled topographic surveying for accurate thematic
mapping,
Everybody started to cut a niche.
Everybody forgot about the domain of cartography and Became proud to
rechristen its parts and combinations as Geomatics, geoinformatics, etc
The INCA has failed to take the initiative to clarify that what these new
technology is delivering at the end is ‘map’ made in a different way by
a varied set of people using modern geospatial technology.
All these semantics are nothing but the components of cartography, that
can well be renamed, if anybody wishes, as Modern Cartography and
None else.

51. International Map Year:
August 2015 – December 2016
declared by the ICA
(International Cartographic Association)
Endorsed by UN – GGIM
(United Nations Global Geospatial
Information Management)
To be officially opened at the ICA
Conference in Rio de Janeiro in August
2015 to be continued till December 2016

53. The ICA Member countries will participate
1) to give their citizens a broader knowledge of Maps, i.e., how they
are produced and used for many purposes in society
1) to give school children and university students an opportunity to
learn more about cartography and also about its neighbouring
sciences, viz., geodesy, photogrammetry, remote sciences and
surveying

54. Challenges that Cartography faces —
1) The biggest one is especially related to
the question on
“how do we name what we do?”
Geomatics,
Geoinformatics,
GIScience,
Geoinformation,
Geoingormation Management,
Cartography
or something else
2) A further challenge is related to
the significant change of “players”.
While cartography, land administration,
geodesy, geoinformation was done and
developed eventually from Govt.
agencies and some companies, much
more players are in the market now:
including companies from “Non-Geo”
domains as well as volunteers and
others.

55. The purpose of IMY is to —
1) Make maps more visible to citizens
and school children in a global
context
2) Show how maps and atlases can
be used in society
3) Show how IT can be used in
getting geographic information
and how to produce one’s own
map
4) Display and show different types
of maps and map production
5) Show the technical development of
mapping and atlas production
6) Show the necessity of a
sustainable development of GI
infrastructure
7) Increase the recruitment of
students to cartography and
cartography-related disciplines
8) IMY shall become a trade mark for
mapping and boost the identity of
the ICA and highlight its mission
in the international arena

56. The Target groups for IMY are —
1) General public
2) School children
3) Professionals
4) Government employees

57. Vision
Think of 2030: 1) information is available anytime and anywhere
2) in its provision and delivery, it is tailored to the user’s
context and needs
3) in this, the location is a key selector for which and
how information is provided
4) cartographic services are thus widespread and of daily
use in a truly ubiquitous manner
5) persons would feel spatially blind without using their
map, which enable them to see
1) who or what is near them, get supported and
2) do searches based on the current location
3) collect data on-site accurately and timely
The current mobile technologies have demonstrated their huge potential and
changed ―
how we work
how we live and
how we interact

58. Prof Georg Gartner (August 2014):
Starting as a geographer and
cartographer dealing with details on
how to deal with signs, graphic
variables and basically modelling the
syntax of cartographic language,
I have evolved into becoming
interested in the meaning of this
form from a
more semantical perspective and
finally end up in being interested in
the
enormous power and potential of the
pragmatic dimension of cartography,
thus understanding maps not only
as a collection of signs and graphics,
but that
those signs carry a specific meaning
for a particular human being or
Community in a particular situation,
thereby leading to an immersive
way of human communication.

64. Prof Ashis Sarkar
www.indiansss.org
profdrashis@gmail.com
editorijss2012@gmail.com