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Beyond preservation: the challenge of ecological restoration
- 1. Beyond preservation: the challenge of ecological restoration – can you live with ambiguity or do you want to be in charge? A practitioner turned researcher’s tale Adrian Colston A Dartmoor Blog https://adriancolston.wordpress.com Twitter: @Dartmoor_AC Email: ac766@exeter.ac.uk
- 2. Putting Cambridgeshire in a national wildlife context 0 20000 40000 60000 80000 100000 120000 140000 160000 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 Hectares Cambridgeshire 10k ha Area of nationally important wildlife habitat (SSSI) per English county Northamptonshire 2.5k ha Cumbria 160k ha Devon 70k ha
- 3. Protected areas in Cambridgeshire by size 7 27 50 16 10 24 14 2 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 < 1 ha 1-10 ha 10-100 ha >100 ha Size Numberbyareaclass SSSIs Wildlife Trust Reserves SSSI - average size = 89.5 ha. WT Reserve - average size = 16.4 ha. Protected areas in Cambridgeshire are very small
- 4. ‘Nature conservation has been forced into tiny sites and many species only survive as a result of intensive and expensive management regimes.’ AC 1997 This is unsustainable?.
- 5. • Counties with less than 1/2 the average of nationally important wildlife habitat • National conservation policies and funding have largely ignored the Black Hole • No National Parks, Environmentally Sensitive Areas, Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty, Heritage Coasts etc. The Black Hole BUT lots of people live in the Black Hole and deserve access to a countryside rich in wildlife The Black Hole Colston A (1997) Conserving wildlife in a black hole Ecos 18: 61-67
- 6. The original proposition • The ‘Planned Countryside’ – few areas of high biodiversity remain so large scale habitat creation is required -> ‘The Big Idea’ • The ‘Ancient Countryside’ – much of interest remains but it is fragmented – so here sites should be linked by habitat creation • The ‘Highland Zones’ extensive areas of quality exist but are not always managed well – improve the management
- 8. Conserving wildlife in a black hole • Of the 2450 ha of SSSI in Northamptonshire 23% (560 ha) have been created by humans for industrial purposes • Such as quarries, gravel pits, railway cuttings and reservoirs • Over 50% of County Wildlife Sites in Northamptonshire have been created
- 9. Macgregor N.A., Adams W.M., Hill C.T., Eigenbrod F. & Osborne P.E. (2012) Large-scale conservation in Great Britain: taking stock. Ecos 33: 13-23 Progress since 1997 e.g. Designation of a Special Protection Area (following gravel extraction) Nature Improvement Area Wildlife Trusts Futurescapes ‘Putting Wildlife Back on the Map’
- 10. Post war Nature Conservation policy in the UK (see NCC 1984, for example) is based upon conserving pre-modern agricultural landscapes using scientifically researched un-intensive management prescriptions (Lorimer 2015). Adams (1997) describes this approach as ‘equilibrium ecology and conservation’, that is, a process which holds habitats at a single and stable point in their succession. Such an approach is almost unique to the UK and whilst it has evidently been successful at conserving many species and habitats, it does make such ecosystems vulnerable when environmental conditions change as the management prescriptions do not allow them to adapt to the changes (Adams 2003). Hinchliffe (2006) has described this approach as ‘rendering the present eternal’. Adams W.M. (1997) Rationalization and conservation: ecology and management of nature in the United Kingdom. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 22: 277-291. Adams W. M. (2003) When nature won’t stay still: Conservation, equilibrium and control. In Adams and Mulligan (2003 pp220-246) Adams W.M. & Mulligan M. (2003) Decolonising Nature: strategies for conservation in a post-colonial era. Earth scan. London. Hinchliffe (2006) Reconstituting nature conservation: towards a carefully political ecology. Geoforum 39: 88-97. NCC (1984) Nature Conservation in Great Britain. Nature Conservancy Council. Shrewsbury.
- 11. The Oostvardersplassen Frans Vera New ideas – different ways of doing things
- 12. The Pleistocene Park? Koniks as Tarpan and Heck Cattle as Aurochsen Process driven and not target based Non equilibrium conservation and ecology
- 13. The ‘Big Idea’ The Great Fen Project A landscape scale aspiration Buy grade 1 agricultural land so that Woodwalton Fen and be joined up to Holme Fen Not process driven - equilibrium conservation and ecology Lawton – pre Lawton
- 14. This is the famous Holne Fen post (photo taken back in 2002). In 1848 a post was driven into the peat and the top of it was at ground level. The peat has shrunk by around 4 metres over the past 150 years!
- 15. The RSPB have created new reedbeds from carrot fields near Lakenheath in Suffolk Equilibrium conservation and ecology All the reeds were planted by hand
- 16. The Future Fen VisionThe National Trust’s Wicken Fen Vision from 800 acres to 15,000 in 100 years Colston A. (2003) Beyond preservation: the challenge of ecological restoration. In Adams and Mulligan (2003). Hughes F.M.R, Colston A. & Mountford J.O (2005) Restoring Riparian Ecosystems: The Challenge of Accommodating Variability and Designing Restoration Trajectories. Ecology and Society 10(1) The Wicken Fen Vision (Colston 2003) is a prominent example of non equilibrium conservation and ecology delivering exciting and unexpected biodiversity outcomes in short periods of time An attempt to accommodate variability via the design of the restoration trajectories, i.e. it is a non- deterministic approaches to goal setting (Hughes et al 2005).
- 17. Managing water levels A nature reserve in a plastic bag The Fen suffers from summer water shortages. A 2km membrane has been installed to keep the water in. Water levels are monitored on a monthly basis. The Ancient Fen – 400 acres: equilibrium conservation and ecology
- 18. Before scrub removal After scrub removal A better balance between open habitats and scrub Scrub: black Open habitats: grey The failure of equilibrium conservation and ecology When Nature won’t stay still
- 19. Managing the Fen for wildlife The sedge harvest has been carried out continuously at Wicken since the 1400 Sedge cutting in Wicken Fen: early morning. Robert Walker MacBeth 1880s The harvest in the 1990s Getting it right: making nature stand still
- 20. This is a river (called a Lode) which drains the chalk uplands of Cambridgeshire to the south of the Fens. To the left and right of the river you can see that the ground is much lower.
- 21. As the ground lowered man-made ditches were required to drain this shrunken landscape – these ditches were much lower now than the surrounding rivers so the water had to be pumped into the higher level rivers. This shows one of these drainage ditches – this is the main one which drains the whole catchment – it is known as the interline.
- 22. As we saw from the post at Holne Fen the peat was over 4 metres deep. In places now so much peat has shrunk and been eroded away that the underlying geology is becoming visible. The right hand side of this field is deep brown and consists of peat – you can however see a patch of lighter soil running diagonally up the field – this is the underlying chalk now becoming exposed.
- 23. The report contains this map which shows the current state of the Fens peat. All the areas that are hatched are intensively farmed – the Fens are some of our most productive agricultural soils. However their current management is clearly not sustainable. The green areas show where the peat has been seriously degraded and is becoming incorporated with the underlying soil and the brown areas show where deep peat soils are still occurring (but still degrading).
- 24. The East Anglian Fens – areas in red show where the peat is still degrading and the areas in green are where it is not. All the green areas are nature reserves / Sites of Special Scientific Interest! The two long straight green areas are the Ouse and Nene Washes. This map shows the greenhouse gas emissions that are occurring today from the peat as a result of the degradation. Orange = 4-10 tonnes of CO2 / ha / year Red = 10-17 tonnes of CO2 / ha / year.
- 25. Burwell Fen Farm is the area in the middle right of the picture starting at the triangular pond – this was in 2002 and you can see it is under a crop rotation. You can also see Adventurer’s Fen, Baker’s Fen and Guinea Hall. These areas were all drained and ploughed during World War Two as part of the ‘dig for victory’ campaign. They have subsequently been restored back to wetlands by the National Trust. At the top left of the picture is the Sedge Fen the 400 acre fragment of the original Fen which escaped drainage.
- 26. This is Burwell Fen now – several hundred acres of wetlands created over the past 10 years. Full of surprises Blacked-necked grebes, marsh harriers, bittern, stonechat, Cetti’s warbler, short-eared owls, great white egrets, cranes The Vision land: non equilibrium conservation and ecology 2,500 acres down 12,500 to go! Nothing planted – all natural processes
- 27. Non equilibrium conservation and ecology Technical advice from Frans Vera Nightingales Turtle doves Purple emperors Meat sales More employment Designation? Non equilibrium -> Equilibrium? Knepp Wildlands Project Marren P. (2016) The great rewilding experiment at Knepp Castle. British Wildlife 27: 333-339.
- 29. By contrast – Avalon Marshes – equilibrium conservation and ecology Also full of surprises: from grey heron and bittern to grey heron, bittern, little bittern, little egret, great white egret, cattle egret, purple heron, night heron and glossy ibis More habitat creation
- 30. Soft re-wilding (after Kelly 2016) a hybrid between equilibrium and non equilibrium Encouraging the ‘ineligible features’ – natural flood management and perches for cuckoos! Kelly M. (2016) Quartz and Feldspar. Revised edition. Vintage. London.
- 31. Equilibrium conservation and ecology does work BUT it does make ecosystems vulnerable when environmental conditions change as the management prescriptions do not allow them to adapt to the changes
- 32. Atmospheric pollution and the problem with Molinia Nitrogen, Sulphur, Carbon dioxide , Ozone When Nature won’t stay still Equilibrium conservation and ecology – really struggling with this
- 34. When Nature won’t stay still 2 – wildlife’s problem with climate change Potential changes in a selection of Dartmoor’s breeding birds (after Huntley et al 2007) Current Dartmoor moorland breeding species which the Atlas predicts will find the late 21st century climate envelope unsuitable Peregrine, Red Grouse, Dunlin, Curlew, Golden Plover, Whinchat, Ring Ouzel, Raven Current Dartmoor moorland breeding species which the Atlas predicts will find the late 21st century climate envelope still suitable or more suitable Kestrel, Lapwing, Snipe, Cuckoo, Barn Owl, Skylark, Meadow Pipit*, Stonechat, Nightjar, Dartford Warbler, Wheatear*, Linnet, Cirl Bunting, Reed Bunting Species currently not present which may be able to colonise the moors of Dartmoor due to the changed climate envelope (doesn’t imply that the habitat is suitable though) Montagu’s Harrier, Hobby, Turtle Dove, Hoopoe, Wryneck, Bluethroat, Cetti’s Warbler, Red-backed Shrike, Woodchat Shrike, Chough Huntley et al (2007) A Climatic Atlas of European Breeding Birds. Lynx Edicions
- 35. In the face of climate change and atmospheric pollution, the impacts of which are uncertain and unknown, should we instead experiment with non-equilibrium ecology and conservation thereby giving habitats and wildlife an opportunity to adapt to the changes?
- 36. But it is not just about wildlife and habitats It is also about people’s livelihoods and culture It is also about ecosystem services and in Dartmoor’s case that means peat, water supply and flood management for example In the case of the Fenland peat the solutions seem obvious if unpalatable? But what of Dartmoor’s peat? Will the current management regime for the moor be the right one in 50 years time? Will they conserve the carbon stores and will they encourage carbon sequestration from the atmosphere? Short term solutions v long term solutions Public money for public goods but via what management mechanism?
- 37. 1. Continuation of the ‘status quo’ (equilibrium ecology and conservation) 2. Variations of the ‘status quo’ (equilibrium ecology and conservation) 3. Soft re-wilding - a hybrid equilibrium / non equilibrium ecology and conservation) 4. Non-deterministic approach to goal setting which I call constrained re-wilding (non equilibrium ecology and conservation) 5. Re-wilding (non equilibrium ecology and conservation) – apex predators and keystone species 1-3: in control 4-5: ambiguity The options for ecological restoration The case for the defence Case for the prosecution
- 38. And all because