A brief description of motivation in management and health education

1. Motivation
Col Zulfiquer Ahmed Amin
M Phil, MPH, PGD (Health Economics), MBBS
Armed Forces Medical Institute (AFMI)

3. Motivation is one of the most frequently used words in
psychology. It refers to the factors which move or activate the
organism.
Motivation is the process of arousing and sustaining goal-
directed behavior.

4. • Internal
– Suggest that variables within the individual give
rise to motivation and behavior
– Example: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory
• Process
– Emphasize the nature of the interaction between
the individual and the environment
– Example: Expectancy theory
• External
– Focus on environmental elements to explain
behavior
– Example: Two-factor theory
3 Groups of Motivational Theories

6. Maslow's hierarchy of needs
Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a theory in psychology proposed
by Abraham Maslow in 1943. Maslow's hierarchy of needs is often
portrayed in the shape of a pyramid with the largest, most
fundamental needs at the bottom and the need for self-
actualization and self-transcendence at the top. Maslow's theory
suggests that the most basic level of needs must be met before
the individual will strongly desire (or focus motivation upon) the
secondary or higher level needs.

7. Physiological needs
Physiological needs are the physical requirements for human
survival. Air, water, and food are basic requirements for survival in all
animals, including humans. Clothing and shelter provide necessary
protection. If these requirements are not met, the human body
cannot function properly and will ultimately fail.

8. Safety needs
Once a person's physiological needs are relatively satisfied, their
safety needs take precedence and dominate behavior. Safety and
Security needs include:
-Personal security
-Financial security
-Health and well-being
-Safety needs against accidents/illness and their adverse impacts

9. Social belonging
After physiological and safety needs are fulfilled, the third level of
human needs is interpersonal and involves feelings of
belongingness. According to Maslow, humans need to feel a
sense of belonging and acceptance among their social groups,
regardless whether these groups are large or small. It is based on
the concept that, ‘Humans need to love and be loved’.

10. Esteem
Esteem presents the typical human desire to be accepted and
valued by others.
Maslow noted two versions of esteem needs: a "lower" version
and a "higher" version. The "lower" version of esteem is the need
for respect from others. This may include a need for status,
recognition, fame, prestige, and attention. The "higher" version
manifests itself as the need for self-respect. For example, the
person may have a need for strength, competence, mastery, self-
confidence, independence, and freedom.

11. Self-actualization
"What a man can be, he must be." This quotation forms the basis of
the perceived need for self-actualization. This level of need refers to
what a person's full potential is and the realization of that potential.
For example, one individual may have the strong desire to become
an ideal parent. In another, the desire may be expressed athletically.
For others, it may be expressed in paintings, pictures, or inventions.

12. Self-transcendence
In his later years, Abraham Maslow explored a further dimension of
needs. The self only finds its actualization in giving itself to some
higher goal outside oneself, in altruism and spirituality.
"Transcendence refers to the very highest and most inclusive or
holistic levels of human consciousness, behaving and relating, as
ends rather than means, to oneself, to significant others, to human
beings in general, to other species, to nature, and to the cosmos".

14. Expectancy theory of motivation
Expectancy theory of motivation proposes an individual will
behave or act in a certain way because they are motivated to select
a specific behavior over other behaviors due to what they expect
the result of that selected behavior will be. In essence, the
motivation of the behavior selection is determined by the
desirability of the outcome.

17. Expectancy theory is a motivation theory first proposed by Victor
Vroom. "This theory emphasizes the needs for organizations to
relate rewards directly to performance and to ensure that the
rewards provided are those rewards deserved and wanted by the
recipients."

18. Vroom introduced three variables within the expectancy theory :
-Valence (V),
-Expectancy (E) and
-Instrumentality (I).
The three elements are important behind choosing one element
over another.

19. Expectancy: effort → performance (E→P)
Expectancy is the belief that one's effort (E) will result in attainment
of desired performance (P) goals. Usually based on an individual's
past experience, self-confidence (self efficacy), and the perceived
difficulty of the performance.
Instrumentality: Performance → Outcome (P→O)
Instrumentality is the belief that a person will receive a reward if
the performance expectation is met. This reward may present itself
in the form of a pay increase, promotion, recognition or sense of
accomplishment. Instrumentality is low when the reward is the
same for all performances given.

20. Valence V(R)
Valence: The value an individual places on the rewards of an
outcome, which is based on their needs, goals, values and sources
of motivation.
The valence refers to the value the individual personally places on
the rewards. (-1 →0→ +1)
-1= Avoiding the outcome
0 = Indifferent to the outcome
+1 = Welcomes the outcome

21. Motivational Force (MF) = Expectancy x Instrumentality x
Valence.
When deciding among behavioral options, individuals select the
option with the greatest amount of motivational force (MF).
Expectancy and instrumentality are attitudes (cognitions),
whereas valence is rooted in an individual's value system.
Examples of valued outcomes in the workplace include, pay
increases and bonuses, promotions, time off, new assignments,
recognition, etc. If management can effectively determine what
their employee values, this will allow the manager to motivate
employees in order to get the highest result and effectiveness out
of the workplace.

22. 3 Causes of Motivational Problems
• Belief that effort will not result in
performance.
• Belief that performance will not result in
rewards.
• The value a person places on, or the
preference a person has for, certain rewards.

23. Two-factor theory
The two-factor theory (also known as Herzberg's motivation-
hygiene theory and dual-factor theory) states that there are
certain factors in the workplace that cause job satisfaction, while
a separate set of factors cause dissatisfaction. It was developed by
psychologist Frederick Herzberg, who theorized that job
satisfaction and job dissatisfaction act independently of each
other.

24. According to Herzberg, individuals are not content with the
satisfaction of lower-order needs at work; for example, those
needs associated with minimum salary levels or safe and pleasant
working conditions. Rather, individuals look for the gratification of
higher-level psychological needs having to do with achievement,
recognition, responsibility, advancement, and the nature of the
work itself. This appears to parallel Maslow's theory of a need
hierarchy.

25. However, Herzberg added a new dimension to this theory by
proposing a two-factor model of motivation, based on the notion
that the presence of one set of job characteristics or incentives
leads to worker satisfaction at work, while another and separate
set of job characteristics leads to dissatisfaction at work. Thus,
satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not on a continuum with one
increasing as the other diminishes, but are independent
phenomena.

29. Two-factor theory distinguishes between:
-Motivators (e.g. challenging work, recognition for one's
achievement, responsibility, opportunity to do something
meaningful, involvement in decision making, sense of importance to
an organization) that give positive satisfaction, arising from intrinsic
factors of job, like recognition, achievement, or personal growth,
-Hygiene factors (e.g. status, job security, salary, fringe benefits,
work conditions, good pay, paid insurance, vacations) that do not
give positive satisfaction or lead to higher motivation, though
dissatisfaction results from their absence.
The term "hygiene" is used in the sense that these are maintenance
factors. These are extrinsic to the work itself, and include aspects
such as company policies, supervisory practices, or wages/salary.

30. According to the Two-Factor Theory, there are four possible
combinations:
-High Hygiene + High Motivation: The ideal situation where
employees are highly motivated and have few complaints.
-High Hygiene + Low Motivation: Employees have few complaints
but are not highly motivated. The job is viewed as a paycheck.
-Low Hygiene + High Motivation: Employees are motivated but have
a lot of complaints. A situation where the job is exciting and
challenging but salaries and work conditions are not up to par.
-Low Hygiene + Low Motivation: This is the worst situation where
employees are not motivated and have many complaints.